lIBRARYOfPRINCETON 

MAR  I  2  2004 
\ 

THEOLOGICAl  SEMINARY 


J 


BS  1180  .J4613  1911  v.2 
Jeremias,  Alfred,  1864-1935 
The  Old  Testament  in  the 
light  of  the  ancient  East 


v 
THEOLOGICAL    TRANSLATION    LIBRARY 


VOL.    XXIX 

JEREMIAS'  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  IN  THE  LIGHT 

OF  THE  ANCIENT  EAST 

VOL.  II 


Zlbeolooical  Urauölation  Xibrav^ 

NEW    SERIES 

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Descfiptk'C  Prosfcclus  on  Af-plication. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 
IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  THE 

ANCIENT  EAST 

MANUAL    OF    BIBLICAL   ARCHiEOLOGY 


r^     nov  3  1911     *, 


BY  /  \ 


ALFRED    JEREMIAS  ^.,      __.^_, 

LICEXTIATE    DOCTOR  \^'^/-/  p  '  \1  Vi,*V^ 

PASTOR    OF    THE   LUTHERKIRCHE,    AND    LECTURER    AT   THE   UMVERSITY   O  F    Lfel«^  Ö  /  Q  ^M      SEW^'^^^ 


ENGL/S//  EDITION 


Translated  from  the  Second  üerman  Edition,  Revised 
and  Enlarged  Ijy  the  Author 

BY 

C.  L.  BEAUMÜNT 

EDITED    };Y 

Rev.  Canon  C.  H.  W.  JOHNS,  Litt.D. 

MASTER   OF   ST   CATIIARINE's    COLLEGE,    CAMBRIDGE 


VOL.  II 


NEW   YORK:     G.    P.    PUTNAM'S    SONS 

LONDON:    WILLIAMS   AND    NORGATE 

1911 


CONTENTS 


CHAP. 
14. 

15- 
16. 


18. 

19. 

20. 


22. 

23- 

24. 

25- 

26. 

27. 
28. 


ABRAHAM    AS    BABYLONIAN 

ABRAHAM    AS    CANAANITE 

FURTHER       GLOSSES       UPON       THE       HISTORIES       OF       THE 

l'ATRIARCHS 
THE    STORIES    OF    JOSEPH 
THE    EXODUS     .... 
ISRAELri'E    AND    BABYLONIAN    LEGISLATION 
"  THE      TABERNACLE      OF      COVENANT  "     AND     "  ARK      OF 

THE    COVENANT ''      . 
FURTHER    GLOSSES    UPON    THE    l'ENTATEUCH 
GLOSSES    UPON    THE    BOOK    OF    JOSH(TA      . 
THE    BOOK    OF    JUDGES 
SAMUEL,  SAUL,  DAVID,  SOLOAION 
THE    POLITICAL   HISTORY   OF   THE   STATES   OF   ISRAEL   AND 

.TUDAH    IN    THE    LIGHT    OF    THE    INIONUMENTS 
FURTHER    GLOSSES    UPON    THE     BOOKS    OF    KINGS,    CHRON 

ICLES,  EZRA,  AND    NEHEMIAH 
GLOSSES    TO    THE    SO-CALLED    DIDACTIC    BOOKS 
GLOSSES    ON    THE    PROPHETS 
APPENDIX  .... 

INDEX  .... 

Note.  —  Several  revisions  and  corrections  having  been  re- 
ceived  from  the  author  after  the  book  was  in  the  press,  these 
have  been  added  in  Appendix,  and  the  small  asterisk  *  through- 
out  the  text  marks  the  passages  to  which  the  revisions  refer. 

The  laige  asterisk  ^  marlcs  passages  of  astral  motifs,  as 
referred  to  above  in  preface  to  the  second  German  edition. 


I 

9 

46 
64 

83 
107 

120 

135 
152 
161 
174 

192 

233 
252 
266 

313 
318 


INDEX  TO  FIGURES 


FIG. 
I20. 
121. 
122. 

1-3- 
124. 
125. 
126, 
127. 
12S. 
129. 
130. 

131- 

132. 

^33- 
134- 
135- 
136. 

137- 
138. 

139- 
140. 
141. 

[42. 
143- 
U4- 
145. 
146. 

147- 
14S. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
153- 
154- 


Ruins  of  El-mugayyar  (Abraham's  home) 

Letter  of  Abdihiba  from  Jerusalem  to  Amenophis  IV, 

Assyrian  guardian  angel,  from  Nimrud 

Assyrian  idol,  from  Khorsabad 

Isbtar  as  the  Mother-goddess    . 

Store  Chamber  from  Pithom 

Horoscope  of  Antiochus  I. 

Assyrian  forced  labour    ^ 

Asiatic  prisoners  of  war  j 

Rameses  II.       . 

Rameses  II.  (head  of  mummy)  / 

Merneptah  ( 

Hammurabi  and  the  Sun-god    . 

Block  of  diorite  containing  the  laws  of  Hammurabi 

Altar,  from  palace  of  Sargon  II. 

Assyrian  sacrificial  scene,  from  Nimrud-Kalach 

Assurbanipal  offering  over  slain  lions  ] 

Drink-offering  with  music  f 

Sacrificial  scene,  from  Nineveh 

Seal  cylinder.     (Sun-god?)        .... 

Sacred  shrine  from  Egypt  "j 

Cherubim  from  Dendera    /       '         '         ' 

Ship  of  the  sun  :  temple  of  Wadi  Sebua    . 

Assyrian  procession  of  idols 

Arch  of  Titus  :  relief  .... 

Egyptian  sacred  bull  .... 

Sacred  cow  :  Egyptian       .... 

Assyrian  seal  cylinder.     (Human  sacrifice  ?) 

Volcanic  chasm  in  Roman  Forum     . 

Boy  vvrestling  with  serpent :  relief  from  Petra 

Pligh  place  of  Petra  1 

Place  for  libation  :   Petra  j  '         '         " 

Serpent  monument :  Petra 

Shekel  of  Bar-Kochba       .... 

Calendar  picture,  Late  Egyptian 


PAGE 

7 
27 

54 
57 
61 
76 
79 

84 


90 

108 
109 
114 
115 

116 

117 
122 


127 

131 
136 

137 
138 
141 
142 
143 
144 

145 
147 
148 


Vlll 


INDEX   Tu   FIGURES 


SS- 

156. 

157- 
[58. 

59- 
r6o. 
r6i. 

t62. 

163. 
164. 
[65. 
[66. 
[67. 
168. 
169. 
170. 
[71. 
[72. 

'73- 

174- 
'75- 
176. 

[78. 

t79- 
[So. 
r8i. 
[82. 
[83. 
t84. 
.85. 
r86. 
187. 
[88. 
.89. 
[90. 
[91. 
[92. 

'93- 
[94. 

'95- 
f96. 
[97. 
[98. 
[99. 
200. 


Etana's  ascension  ^ 

Seal  cylinder.     ( Etana's  ascension  ?)  J 

Apotheosis  ofTitus   ^ 

Ganymede  j-         .         .         .         . 

Teshup  :  Hittite  relief        .... 

Sculpture  from  Sueda         .... 

Assurbanipal  as  lion-slayer 

Destruction  of  idols  :  relief  from  Khorsabad 

Player  and  entranced  listener    . 

E-S.\R,  KingofUd-NUNki     . 

Relief  from  gate,  Zenjirli    .... 

Fresco  from  Pompeii  (judgment  of  Solomon) 

Black  obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  IL. 

From  obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  IL     . 

Storming  a  fortress,  by  Sargon . 
Assyrian  battle  scene  :  Assurbanipal 
Sargon  IL  and  field-marshal     . 
Musicians  :  palace  of  Assurbanipal  . 
Sennacherib  at  Lachish     .... 
Assurbanipal  and  \yife  in  arbour  "^ 

Cameo  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (spurious  Greek  portrait)  j 
Assyrian  king  blinding  prisoner 
Bronze  carrier  for  holy  vvater  vessels 

Mesha  stone 

Stele  of  victory  of  Esarhaddon 

Double  flute  •\ 

Cymbal  S  Relief,  time  of  Assurbanipal 

Drum  ) 

Eleven-stringed  harp,  on  Babylonian  fragment 

Genius:  relief  from  Nimrud      .... 

Assyrian  demon         ...... 

Merodachbaladan  IL  rewarding  dignitary 

Band  from  bronze  gate,  Balawat 

Ancient  Babylonian  contract  showing  outer  cover 

Business  document :  fifth  Century  B.C. 

Stand,  supportcd  by  cherubim  ; 

Genius  with  eagle's  head  \         '         '         ' 

Genius  with  eagle's  feet    "j 

Genius  with  body  of  bull  j  •         •         •         • 

Genius  with  body  of  lion,  dcmons  above  . 

Mythological  Ornaments  :  Nineveh   . 
Medieeval  map  of  the  world       ... 


Reliefs  from  city  gate  :  Zenjirli 


149 

150 

156 

157 
170 

175 
179 
181 
1S3 
186 
210 

211 

217 
218 
219 
223 
224 

229 

232 
-38 
246 

261 

263 
267 
272 
274 
277 
2S1 
2S2 

2S3 

284 
2S5 
2S6 
288 

2S9 


FIG. 

202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 

213. 
214. 


INDEX   TO   FIGUHES. 

Seal  cylinder      ........ 

Divining  liver,  with  magic  lines         .... 

Statue  of  Gudea 

Architectural  plan,  froin  statue  of  Gudea  ) 

?^Ieasuring  rod,  from  statue  of  Gudea        f 

Gern,  with  story  of  Jonah  ) 

Conquest  of  city  by  Assurbanipal)    •  •         •         . 

Conquest  of  a  city  :  relief,  Nineveh  .... 

Assyrian  archers  and  spearsmen  "| 

Assyrian  military  emblem  /     '  •         • 

Assyrian  military  emblem 

Relief  :  prisoners  led  before  Darius  .... 
Combat  oftriad  against  monster  (wolf.^}   . 

I.  Map  to  Table  of  Nations,  Genesis  x.  ] 

II.  Canaan  in  the  Amarna  period  j  ^^  ^"^  °^  '''^^■ 


(■.A.GF. 
292 
294 

297 

29S 

306 

30S 
310 

^12 


ABBREVIATIONS,  Etc. 

^.i?.^.,Das  Alter  der  Babylonischen  Astronomie;  A.  Jeremias.    (Hinrichs, 

1909.) 
-,4.^.,  Assyriologische  Bibliothek,  by  Delitzsch  and  Haupt,   1881  ff.  (pub. 

by  Hinrichs,  Leipzig). 
A.O.,    Der  Alte   Orient.     Publication  of  the   Vorderasiat.    Gesellschaft. 

(Hinrichs,  1899  ff.) 
A.O.  I.,  Alter  Orient,  I.  Jahrgang. 
B.A.,  Beiträge   zur   Assyriologie,    by  Delitzsch  and   Haupt.     (Hinrichs, 

1889  ff.) 
B.N.T.,  Babylonisches  im  Neuen  Testament;  A.  Jeremias.     (Hinrichs, 

1905.) 
CT.,  Cuneiform  Texts  from  Babylonian  Tablets  in   the  Brit.    Museum, 

1896  ff. 

Hattdzij.,  Handwörterbuch  ;  Delitzsch.     (Hinrichs,  1S96.) 

G.G.G.-,  Grundrisz  der  Geographie   und   Geschichte   des   Alten    Orient  ; 

Hommel. 
H.C.,  Hammurabi  Code. 
I-N.,    Izdubar-Nimrod,    eine     altbabylonische    Beschwörungslegende; 

A.  Jeremias.     (B.  G.  Teubner,   1891.) 
K.A.T.,  Die    Keilinschriften   und    das   Alte   Testament,  3rd    ed.,    1903; 

Eberhard  Schrader.     (English  translation  1885-1888.) 
Ä'.Ä,  Keilinschriftliche  Bibliothek  ;  Eberhard  Schrader.     (Reuther,  1889.) 
K.T.,    Keilinschriftliches    Textbuch    zum    Alten  Testament;   Winckler. 

(Hinrichs,  1903.) 
Lex.,     Lexikon     der     griech.     und    römischen     Mythologie ;     Röscher. 

(Teubner.) 
M.D.P.V.,  Mitteilungen  des  Deutschen  Palästina-Vereins. 
M.V.A.G.,  Mitteilungen  der  Vorderasiat.  Gesellschaft.     (Peiser,  Berlin.) 
O.L.Z.,  Orientalistische  Literaturzeitung.     (Peiser,  1898  ff.) 
P.S.B.A.,  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archseology. 
R.P.Th.,  Realencyklopädie  für  Prot.  Theol.  und  Kirche,  edited  by  Hauck. 

(Hinrichs,  1896  ff.) 
V.A.B.,  Vorderasiatische  Bibliothek.     (Hinrichs,  1906.) 
"Winckler,    F.,   Altorientalische  Forschungen  ;    H.    Winckler.      (Pfeiffer, 

1897  ff.) 

Z.A.,  Zeitschrift  für  Assyriologie  ;  Bezold. 


xii  ABBREVIATIONS 

Z.A.W. ^  Zeitschrift  für  Alttest.  Wissenschaft ;  B.  Stade. 

Zimmern,  Beit.,  Beiträge  zur  Kenntnis  der  Babyl.  Religion  \^A.B.,  xii.]. 

(Hinrichs,  1901.) 
Z.D.M.G.,  Zeitschrift  der  Deutschen  Morgenländischen  Gesellschaft. 
Z.P.  V.,  Zeitschrift  des  Deutschen  Palästina-Vereins. 
I.  R.  II.  R.  etc.,  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia,  Brit.  Museum. 
Ab]i.  phil.-hist.  Cl.  Köiiigl.  Sachs.  Gesell,  der  lVzssefisc/ia/'/e/i  =  Ahhand- 

lungen    der    philologisch-historischen    Classe    der    Königl. 

Sächsischen  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften. 
Ge^iesis,   Delitzsch  =  English,  The    Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis,   1876. 

New  ed.,  Sayce.     (G.  Smith.) 
Ast7-almythe7i,    Stucken  =  Astralmythen    der    Hebräer,     Babylonier    und 

Aegypter. 
Hölle  uJtd  Paradies^    English  translation,    The  Babylonian  Conception 

of  Heaven  and  Hell.     No.  IV.  of  a  series  of  short  studies 

called  the  "  Ancient  East,'"  published  by  D.  Nutt,  Long  Acre. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT    IN  THE 
LIGHT  OF  THE   ANCIENT  EAST 

CHAPTER  XIV 

ABRAHAM    AS    BABYLONIAN 

The  stories  in  Genesis  from  chapter  xi.  26  onwards  give  the 
tradition,  founded  upon  various  documentary  sources,  current 
in  pious  circles  of  Israel  in  regard  to  the  primeval  history  of  the 
nation.  We  may  consider,  besides  Genesis,  Joshua  xxiv.  2 ; 
Isa.  Ixiii.  16,  h.  1  f. ;  Jer.  xxxiii.  26  ;  and  (in  regard  to  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah),  Arnos  iv.  11,  and  Isa.  i.  9. 

In  the  form  before  us  the  histories  of  the  Patriarchs  are 
incomplete  and  idealised.  We  do  not  know  how  the  documentary 
sources  ran  from  which  the  stories  are  gathered,  and  how  much 
eise  was  verbally  related.  The  author  of  the  so-called  Priestly 
Document  had  two  sources  before  him,  agreeing  together  in  main 
facts.  He  made  excerpts  from  them  according  to  certain  points 
of  view,  probably  also  adding,  besides  his  genealogical  sketch, 
something  from  other  sources.     But  his  excerpts  are  incomplete.^ 

From  suppositions  contained  in  the  traditions  of  the  Mosaic 
period,  we  should  expect,  for  example,  more  vivid  references  to 

1  We  may  surely  Supplement  the  tradition  from  legends  of  extra-Biblical  and 
Islamic  traditions.  (Islamic  religion  is,  like  Biblical,  founded  upon  Abraham.) 
In  both  spheres  we  find  material  independent  of  the  Biblical  sources,  and  which 
cannot  have  been  simply  invented.  The  New  Testament  writers  also  (for  a 
summary  of  these  passages,  see  B.N.T.,  II2  ;  comp,  also  Heb.  xi.  21,  p.  57)  use 
for  ancestral  history  sources  which  rank  with  the  Bible  and  which  have  the  same 
right  to  be  observed  as  those  portions  of  the  tradition  retained  for  us  by  the 
editor.  It  is,  for  example,  not  out  of  the  question  that  in  some  cases  they  descend 
from  portions  of  the  sources  which  were  dropped  out  in  the  editing  ;  comp. 
Th.L.BL,  1906,  pr.  348. 

voT..   n.  1  1 


2  ABRAHAM    AS   BABYLONIAN 

Arabia  :  we  should  especially  expect  records  of  a  place  of  worship 
of  the  God  of  the  Hebrews.^ 

That  they  had  relations  with  the  Arabian  deserts  is  shown 
by  the  history  of  Lot,  and  the  emigration  of  Abraham  with 
Sarah  in  tinie  of  faniine.  The  scene  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Isaac,  Gen.  xxii.  2,  was  probably,  according  to  the  original 
text,  "  lipon  a  mountain  in  the  land  of  Muzri ""  (the  Mas.  text 
writes  it  Moriah,  see  p.  48),  upon  Sinai-Horeb.  Bot  the 
tradition  is  vague. 

Also  about  the  rites  ofhlood^  which  the  Feast  of  the  Passover, 
Exod.  xii.  7,  assumes  as  well  known,  nothing  is  said  in  the 
stories  of  the  Patriarchs ;  it  is,  however,  affirnied  in  a 
pre-Israelite  age  of  Canaan  by  the  discovery  of  the  column 
in  the  houses  (p.  344,  i.)  which  were  sprinkled  with  blood  on 
the  posts. 

The  stories  of  the  Patriarchs  bear  signs  of  idectUsdtion.  Thus 
in  P  circinncision  is  introduced  into  the  story  in  order  to  give 
these  docuinents  a  .specially  sacred  character,  whilst  at  the  same 
tinie  it  is  expressly  affirnied  that  Moses  and  his  sons  were 
uncircumcised.-  But  just  the  fact  that  idealisation  in  itself 
is  not  made  an  object,  answers  for  a  historical  nucleus  to 
the  story.  An  idealistic  legend  with  no  background  of  fact 
would  certainly  not  have  made  the  Patriarchs  dwell  as  strangers 
in  the  land,  obliged  to  bargain  with  barbarians  for  a  burial- 
place.  They  would  further  have  suppressed  the  marriage  of 
Jacob  to  two  sisters,  forbidden  in  Lev.  xviii.  18.''  Also  maiiv 
strong  human  features,  showing  as  blemishes  in  the  brilliant 
populär  heroes,  would  be  inexplicablc  in  the  composition  of 
fables  of  populär  ideal  characters.  But,  above  all,  the  correct- 
ness  of  iniVieii  testifies  we  are  dealing  with  tradition,  not  with 
poetry.  The  background  of  conteuiporary  history  and  the 
details  of  manners  and  custonis  agree  with  those  we  find  recorded 
upon  the  monumeiits  of  these  periods,  and  aiiswer  for  it  that 
the  Biblical  tradition  was  drawn  from  good  sources. 

•  See  Exod.  iii.  i8,  x.  3,  9  ;  comp,  i  Kings  xix.  8,  where  the  forty  days  is  not 
in  refereiice  to  the  map  of  the  country  (see  p.  94,  i.);  Deut,  xxxii.  2  ;  Judges  v.  4. 

-  Exod,  iv.  24  ff.  This  contradiction  between  tradition  and  the  law  was  once 
iised  in  a  remarkable  way  by  Jesus  in  controversy  with  the  Pharisees ;  see 
Juhii  vii.  22.  '  Comp.  p.  37. 


ABRAHAM   AS   BABYLONIAN  3 

The  objection  has  been  raised  that  it  is  not  possible  fov  such  a 
tradition  to  have  been  transmitted  through  centuries.  In  proof,  it 
has  been  tried  how  far  back  war  traditions  and  such  like  can  be 
traced  amongst  the  peasantry. 

Neither  the  objection  nor  the  proof  holds  good  The  isolated 
memories  of  the  present  cannot  be  compared  to  the  populär 
memory  of  decisive,  or  even  supposed,  religious  events.  The 
Odenwald,  for  instance,  is  to  the  present  day  füll  of  ancient 
Germanic  remembrances.  But  we  must  have  lived  amongst  the 
people  (perhaps  as  pastor)  for  many  years  to  gain  the  confidence  of 
these  old  peasants  of  the  Odenwald,  who  still  love  to  name  their 
sons  Siegfried,  before  the}^  will  teil  secretly  what  they  have  learnt 
from  their  forefathers.  And  in  the  Wendel  or  East  Prussia  may 
still  be  found  "  witch  "  women  who,  at  the  "  witches'  sabbath  "  or 
night  of  the  solstice,  otfer  the  old  heathen  sacrifices,  and  guard 
secrets  they  have  inherited  from  their  mothers  of  ancient  times. 
We  must  remember  that  three  generations  are  always  living 
together,  and  that  amongst  hardy  tribes  there  would  not  be  so 
very  many  generations  to  the  thousand  years.  And  in  addition, 
we  have  to  do  here  with  the  Oriental  memory.  Anyone  reading 
the  Thousand  and  One  Nights,  with  some  knowledge  of  the  Ancient 
East,  sees  with  amazement  the  strength  of  the  tradition  in  the 
East.  Besides  this,  we  may  assume  that  the  sources  of  the  Elohist 
and  Yahvist  were  not  only  verbal,  but  that  also  written  traditions  ^ 
were  available,  like  the  stories  which  in  the  modern  Babylonian 
period  gave  records  of  the  heroes  of  the  Hammurabi  age,  being 
themselves  transcripts  or  newly  composed  poems  from  ancient 
documents ;  comp.  pp.  232,  i.  ff.'- 

1  Compare  now  Erbt,  Die  Ebräer,  pp.  6i  ff.  :  "Abraham  appears  in  the  flesh  in 
the  Hammurabi  age.'"  Erbt  thinks  that  historical  documents  existed  from  the 
Canaanite  age.  The  sanctuaries  of  Penuel-Mahanaim  and  Sichem  may  have  had 
archives  with  records  from  the  Hammurabi  age.  Also  in  Jerusalem  written 
traditions  may  have  been  preserved  (comp.  Melchizedek  in  Ps.  ex.  ;  see  p.  29). 

-  According  to  the  law  of  ethnographical  research,  family  history  cannot  be  the 
starting-point  for  a  national  history.  Nations  and  tribes  arise  by  the  amalgama- 
tion  of  families  and  houses,  not  by  multiplication  and  division  of  families.  But, 
"also  families  did  not  drop  out  of  the  heavens  "  (Nikel,  Genesis,  and  K.F.,  211). 
The  namesof  most  of  the  tribes  of  Israel  were  originally  personal  nouns  (Hommel, 
G.  G.  G.,  pp.  185  f. ).  In  Arabia  at  the  present  day  many  tribes  descend  from  one 
ancestor  (comp.  Cornill,  Geschichte  des  V.,  i.  37  f.,  where  Turkish  statistics  upon 
Bedouin  tribes  of  the  Jaulan  and  Hauran  are  pointed  out,  and  Z.D.P.V.,  xxiii. 
58).  Besides,  the  laws  of  ethnography  would  not  in  any  case  prevent  us  laking 
the  descent  of  Israel  as  from  one  family,  but  the  tradition  itself  does  not  assert  the 
autochthonistic  descent  of  the  Children  of  Israel. 

The  same  laws  shut  out  the  descent  of  man  from  one  pair,  which  from  the 
Christian  point  of  view  we  hold  fast.  Laws  are  categories  of  human  thought. 
In  the  history  of  Israel  there  is  much  for  which  there  is  no  analogy  in  history  or 
religion.  We  might  quite  well  allow  the  origin  of  the  nation  to  be  an  exceptton, 
if  we  recognise  the  special  part  given  to  Israel  in  the  history  of  the  education  of 


4  ABRAHAM    AS   BABYLONIAN 

Abraham  appears  in  the  presentment  before  us  as  "  Father  of 
the  familv."  It  is  characteristic  of  all  ancient  history  that  the 
tribe,  like  the  race,  appears  as  a  family,  tracing  back  its  descent 
from  one  forefather.  But  in  this  tradition  itself  we  may  see 
that  the  family  is  not  meant  to  be  undevstood  as  an  ethnological 
division. 

It  is  historical  only  in  so  far  as  the  family  desigu  retains  the 
traditions  of  prominent  leaders  of  the  "  Children  of  Israel,'' 
amongst  whom  there  was  also  a  Jacob,  with  twelve  sons.  The 
genealogical  tables  have  been  artificially  composed  later.  Every- 
one  wished  to  be  descended  from  primeval  aristocracy.  Further 
upon  this  subject,  see  pp.  42  ff. 

Abraham  was  not  father  of  the  family  in  an  ethnological, 
but  in  a  spiritual  sense  :  "  Father  of  the  faitliful."''  When  he 
is  "  to  become  a  great  nation,"'  it  must  be  understood  of  a 
religious  communitv,  as  in  Numb.  xiv.  12,  where  Moses  is 
to  be  the  father  of  a  new  people,  since  the  old  must  be 
rooted  out. 

The  ethnographical  misunderstanding,  e  lumbis  Abrahce, 
has  been  the  misfortune  of  the  Jews.  John  the  Baptist  and 
Jesus  had  to  combat  it.  All  the  more  emphatically  do  we 
emphasise  the  religious  signification  of  the  descent  from 
Abraham.  Israelite  religion,  which  later  assembled  itself  round 
the  name  mn\  does  not  begin  first  with  Moses.  It  is  founded 
upon  revelation.  Moses  was  in  a  special  sense  a  bearer  of  this 
revelation,  but  the  revelation  itself  had  stages  in  the  pre-Mosaic 
age.  And  in  those  stages  also  it  could  only  work  through 
individuals.  The  leading  religious  individualities  and  bearers 
of  revelation  in  the  primitive  ages  of  Israel  are  the  Patriarchs. 

We  may  gather  from  the  Biblical  tradition  that  the  beginning 
of  the  religious  conununity,  known  later  as  the  "  Chiklien  of 
Israel,"  took  its  rise  in  a  imgration  ^  out  of  Babylonia,  therefore 

the  human  race.  Upun  the  groiind  of  axioms,  accoiding  to  which  the  probleni 
of  the  origin  of  man  is  held  unsolvable,  it  is  customary,  certainly,  to  brand  such 
deductions  as  a/;7ö;7  unscientific.  Some  day  this  may  be  changed.  But,  as  has 
been  said,  the  assertion  of  an  autochlhonic  descent  of  the  "  Children  of  Israel" 
does  not  agree  with  the  sense  of  the  tradition. 

'  Klostermann,  in  his  Geschichte  Israels,  31,  holds  a  similar  view  in  regard  to 
the   migration  of  Abraham  being  an  historical  migration   of  a  tribe.     We  have 


ABRAHAM   «FATHER   OF   THE   FAITHFUL"      5 

a  kind  of  religious  hegira.  Abraham  -vvas  the  leader,  like  a 
Mahdi.  "The  people  that  they  had  won  in  Haran^may  be 
quite  well  taken  to  mean  adherents.^  In  that  case,  we  see  how 
he  could  equip  318  people  ;  also  the  stoiy  of  the  Separation  from 
Lot  (Gen.  xiii.  6  fF.)  shows  that  it  is  a  question  of  still  larger 
bands.  Later  we  find  recorded  reinforcements  from  Egypt, 
that  is  to  say,  Muzri  (Gen.  xii.  15  f.  and  xx.),  and  from  Gerar.'- 
(Gen.  XX.  14).  Even  though  these  were  primarily  slaves  (Hagar, 
Gen.  xvi.  1,  and  IshmaePs  wife,  Gen.  xxi.  21,  belonged  to 
them)  still  they  could  be  included  in  the  religious  community, 
and  later  in  the  national  community,  then  called  "  Children  of 
Israel.''  Also  in  Gen.  xxxii.  4  f.  there  is  explicitly  another 
reinforcement  from  Haran. 

According  to  other  Oriental  oceurrences  of  the  like  type 
(Mohammed),  we  must  take  the  march  of  Abraham  to  have 
been,  even  though  in  the  mildest  form,  a  march  to  make  conquest. 
In  idealising  the  Biblical  records  this  has  been  veiled.  The 
Oriental  tradition  outside  the  Bible,  according  to  which 
"■  Abraham  (whose  father  was  a  Babylonian  General)  overthrew 
the  army  of  Nimrod,  and  seized  upon  the  land  of  Canaan  for 
himseUV  is  certainly  not  pure  invention.-^     Gen.  xxi.   22    pre- 

arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  by  difterent  ways.  Klostermann  has  won  much 
honour  by  a  new  critical  examination  of  the  histories  of  the  Patriarchs.  At 
pp.  42  ff.  his  tiaces  are  followed. 

1  In  Gen.  xii.  5  it  is  haniuphesh  (Kautzsch,  like  Luther,  translates  thisas  jö^^A). 
According  to  Ezek.  xxvii.  13,  nephesh  may  mean  "  slaves  "  (here,  however,  it  is 
itephesh-adam),  and  is  then  equivalent  to  the  Babylonian  napishttt,  which,  so  far 
as  I  am  avvare,  has  not  been  observed.  The  translation  "slaves  vv^hich  they  had 
bought'"  (li;';')  is  very  questionable.  And  why  is  it  nephesh  here,  which 
designates  man  as  a  Spiritual  being  (in  special  antithesis  to  the  beasts)  ?  In  other 
places  the  slave  is  called  'ebed.  Why  should  not  nephesh,  if  it  should  be  called 
"slave,"  be  reckoned  before  the  other  possessions,  or,  as  elsewhere  (comp.  p.  264, 
n.  3),  be  included  in  possession  {reknsh)  as  real  property?  The  mysterious 
hanikiin,  moreover,  argues  for  the  meaning  being  "adherents,"  Gen.  xiv.  14  ;  see 
p.  27. 

2  That  these  were  "  Philistines"  (Gen.  xxvi.  i),  is  founded  upon  a  later  mis- 
understanding.  The  Philistines  (remnants  of  the  seafaring  tribes)  had  not  yet 
entered  the  country.  Upon  the  inclusion  of  such  Jewish  traditions,  see  p.  i, 
n.  I  ;  II,  n.  i  ;  B.N.T.,  p.  65,  n.  2,  and  p.  67  ;  also  Boeklen,  Archiv /.  Rel. 
IVtss.,  vi.  p.  6. 

^  See  Beer,  /.eben  J/osis  nach  Auffassung  der  judischen  Sage,  p.  40,  and  his 
Leben  Abrahams,  p.  i. 


6  ABRAHAM    AS   BABYLONIAN 

supposes  the  ability  of  Abraham  to  make  war,  and  the  episode 
in  Gen.  xiv.  clearly  describes  him  as  a  leader  in  battle,  exactly 
like  the  Egyptian  fugitive  Sinuhe,  who  (about  2000  b.c.)  was  a 
leader  in  Syria  of  the  tribes  in  their  wars.  In  Sichern  Abraham 
joined  an  alliance  of  the  tribes  (called  ba''aie-be?it),  .see  p.  30. 
Perhaps  the  change  of  name  to  Abraham  "  Father  of  tamult  " 
(=Sin  qarid  iläni,  war-hero  of  the  gods),  may  be  interpreted  in 
this  sense.^ 

MlüRATIOX    OF    THE    PeOPLE    OF    AßRAHA^f 

In  Gen.  xi.  28  Ur  Kasdim  (Ur  of  the  Chaldees)  is  named  in 
P  '^  as  the  original  starting-point  of  the  migration.^  The 
Sibylline  books  speak  of  the  land  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
(Kautzsch,  Pseudepig?:,  189).  This  is  Uru  of  the  cuneiform 
writings ;  the  name  includes  both  city  and  country. 

After  the  patesi  of  Lagash,  the  best-known  being  Gudea,  "  kings 
of  Ur  "  lield  supremacy  in  Babylonia  in  the  first  half  of  the  third 
millennium.  They  call  themselves  also  kings  of  Kingi  and  Urtu.'* 
The  most  ancient  king  known  to  us  of  a  kingdom  in  Ur  is  Ur-Gur. 
He  built  and  venewed  uiany  temples.  Though  up  to  the  present 
inscriptions  relating  to  him  are  only  known  in  South  Babylonia, 
undoubtedly  his  kingdom  also  included  North  Babylonia.  His  son 
Dungi,  who  reigned  for  over  fifty  years^  calls  himself  "  King  of  the 
four  quai'ters  of  the  earth."  His  followers  (the  so-calied  "second 
dynasty  of  Ur "  must  be  abandoned)  have  Semitic  names.     After 

'  Hommel,  .-l/u.  Heb.  Trad.,  takes  cniax  lo  be  an  older  orthogiaphical  foim. 
But  the  double  name  of  both  ihe  Patriarchs  Abram-Abiahani  and  Jacob-Israel 
must  certainly  have  some  special  meaning. 

-  Gen.  xi.  28  is  held  to  be  a  gloss  from  the  P.  The  descent,  according  to 
Elohist  sources,  has  been  lost.  According  to  latcr  hints  the  starting-point  was  in 
the  neighbourhood  on  the  right  of  the  Euphrates.  The  Yahvist  makes  the 
migration  start  from  Harran.  All  three  points  are  upon  the  road  leading  from 
Babylonia  to  Canaan.  The  uniformity  of  the  tradition  is  shown  by  Ur  and 
Harran  belongitig  together  as  the  two  places  of  moon-worship  ;  see  pp.  9  f. 

■''  Many  legends  of  Abraham  are  also  connected  with  Urfa.  This  naturally 
should  not  mislead  into  looking  for  the  cities  of  Ur  therc  (Kassam,  Joh.  Lepsius). 
Another  tradition  names  Arpakshad  as  the  original  home.  Those  would  be  the 
consonants  for  Urfa  Kasdim  ;  but  Urfa  is  probably  only  a  modern  name  (according 
to  Hommel,  G.G.G,,  193,  n.  3,  to  be  separated  formally  from  Orrhoe  ;  Syrian 
Urhoi,  'i.mN  ;  Arabic  Ruhä  =  Edessa  ;  'Urfa  =  nsij;,  ridge  of  land). 

''  In  political  geography,  that  is,  like  Sumer  and  Akkad,  South  and  North 
Babylonia.  According  to  the  vocabularies,  Kingi  specially  is  =  Sumerand  Urlu  = 
Akkad. 


MIGRATION   OF  THE   PEOPLE   OF   ABRAHAM     7 

the  dynasty  of  Ur  follows  a  dynasty  of  Isin  (to  this  belongs  Ishme- 
Dagan  with  the  Canaanite  name),  then  one  of  Larsa,  which  linder 
Rim-Sin  was  overthrown  by  Hammurabi_,  who  says  of  himself  upon 
one  of  bis  stele  of  laws  :  '•  who  makes  Sin^  who  makes  Ur  rieh, 
who  briiigs  the  kingdom  to  Gish-shir-gal  (temple  of  the  moon  in 
Ur)."  The  city  of  Ur  has  been  rediscovered  in  the  riiins  of  El- 
Mugayyar  (el-Mugheir)  in  South  Babylonia,  upon  the  right  bank 
of  the  Euphrates.  Here  Royal  seals  with  the  name  Uru  have  been 
foundj  inscriptions  of  Dungi,  Kudur-Mabug,  Ishme-Dagan,  but  also 
more  of  Xabonidus.  The  city  was  chief  place  of  worship  of  the 
South  Babylonian  moon  cult.^ 

Gen.  xi.  31  :  The  people  of  Abraham  journey  towards  Harran 
the    northern  moon  city,  chief  place  of  Mesopotamia  proper.- 


Fig.  120. — Ruins  of  El-mugay)-ar  (Ur  Kasdim 
of  the  Bible,  Abraham's  home). 

Should  their  goal  have  been  even  then  Canaan,  this  was  the 
usual  Caravan  route  out  of  Babylonia,  in  spite  of  the  enormous 
detour.-^ 

1  Eupolemos  (about  i6o  B.C.),  in  Eusebius,  PrcBp.  cvang.,  \\.  7  (Müller,  Fragiit., 
iii.  211  f.),  says  that  Abraham  was  born  in  the  Babylonian  city  Kamarine,  which 
many  call  Giipirj.  Kamarine,  probably  to  be  interpreted  by  the  Arabian  Kamar 
moon,  is  also  to  be  read  in  the  Sibylline  books  (Kautzsch,  PscuJepy.,  189)  as  name 
of  a  city  "in  the  land  of  Ur." 

-  It  is  from  the  old  point  of  view  of  the  primitive  life  in  the  desert  of  Israel  when 
QwnV'sS.  {Genesis,  150)  says  that,  according  to  Gen.  xii.  I,  Abraham's  forefathers, 
were  not  thought  of  as  dwellers  in  cities  when  they  were  described  as  going  out 
from  Harran.  But  when  Guthe,  Geschichte  Israels,  10,  says:  "they  or  their 
fathers  turned  their  backs  upon  civilisation  for  the  sake  of  the  freedom  of  the 
desert,"  this  is,  in  fact,  contradicted  not  only  by  the  circumstances  of  the  Israelite 
primitive  age,  but  it  contains  in  general  an  impossibility  in  the  history  of  civilisation. 

•■  The  migration  of  Esau,  which  is  related  in  the  same  words  as  that  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  6,  comp.  xii.  5),  has  another  motif,  but  it  was  also  viewed  as  the 
migration  of  a  Community,  as  Klostermann  has  seen,  Geschichte  Israels,  30. 


8  ABRAHAM    AS    BABYLONIAN 

The  special  narae  of  the  Moon-god  here_,  side  by  side  with  Sin^ 
was  Bel-yarnirij  and  as  such  he  exercised  a  strong  influence  lipon 
Syria.i  The  reforms  of  Islam  are  largely  connected  with  Harran. 
Right  into  the  Middle  Ages  ti*aces  of  moon-worship  were  i'etained 
amongst  the  Sabaeans  of  Harran,  in  this  stronghold  of  heathenisni. 

From  Harran  the  road  led  by  Biredjik  over  the  Euphrates. 
Sachau  found  traces  of  the  old  road.  In  the  Thousand  and  One 
Nights  an  interesting  journey  is  related  from  Harran  to 
Samaria.  The  way  of  the  people  of  Abraham  was  by  the 
primeval  caravan  and  military  road  connecting  Egypt  with 
Babylonia.  Damascus  might  be  expected  a.s  chief  halting- 
place.^  In  fact,  Gen.  xv.  'i  does  hint  a  connection  between  the 
Biblical  stories  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Damascus.  The  tradition 
still  lives  in  Damascus.^  Berossus  records,  according  to  Josephus, 
Ant. ,  i.  7,  that  in  his  time  the  name  of  Abram  was  still  celebrated 
in  the  land  of  the  Damascenes,  and  Josephus  quotes  from  the 
fourth  book  of  the  Histories  of  Nicholas  of  Damascus  the 
following  story  : 

In  Damascus  reigned  Abram^  who  came  there  with  an  army 
from  the  land  of  the  Chaldees/  bordering  on  the  upper  half  of 
Babylon.  And  not  long  after  he  moved  out  again  from  there  with 
his  people  toAvards  Canaan,  which  is  now  called  Judea,  where  he 
greatly  increased. 

^  A  relief  from  Zenjirli  in  Syria  gives  evidence  of  the  civilisation  of  that  country. 
In  Nerab  near  Aleppo  two  gravestones  were  found,  erected  for  priests  of  the 
Moon-god  of  Harran.  In  a  treaty  between  Mati-ilu,  Prince  of  Arpad  (see  p.  49). 
and  the  Assyrian  king  Ashurmirari,  Sin  of  liarrän  is  invoked  in  the  first  passage. 

-  Assyrian  Dimashqi,  Timasqi  in  the  lists  of  Thothmes  from  the  sixteenth 
Century  (comp.  pp.  328,  i.  f.). 

'  The  Jebel  Qasyun  rising  above  Damascus  is  held  sacred  by  the  Moslems,  It 
was  here  that  Abraham  reached  the  knowledge  of  the  unity  of  God  ;  see  Baedeker, 

*  This  is  certainly  a  later  addition,  which  confounds  Harran  with  Ur,  or  reckons 
Ur  with  Chaldea,  Otherwise  Lepsius,  who  holds  Urfa  for  the  home,  might  have 
appealed  to  it. 


CH AFTER   XV 

abraham  as  canaanite 
The  Religion  of  the  People  of  Abraham 

The  Yahveh  religion  of  the  Mosaic  period  has,  according  to 
the  Biblical  tradition,  previous  stages  in  the  religion  of  the 
Patriarchs  (comp.  Exod.  iii.  16).  We  are  of  opinion  that 
this  tradition  corresponds  to  a  fact  of  rehgious  historj. 
Abraham's  migration  brought  the  tradition  into  connection 
with  the  two  great  intellectual  cities  of  the  Moon-god  (Sin  of 
Ur  and  Bel-^Jarran).  The  tradition  of  Josephus,  xxiv.  2,  says 
of  Abraham's  forefathers  that  beyond  the  Euphrates  they 
served  "  other  gods,"  ^  therefore  the  gods  of  the  Babylonian 
astral  relig-ion.  We  have  seen  the  monotheistic  undercurrent 
which  for  initiates  underlay  this  astral  religion.  These  under- 
currents  must  have  become  particularly  strong  in  the  regions  of 
moon-worship  before  the  age  of  Hammurabi.  Moon-worship 
ruled  the  age  tili  the  worship  of  Marduk  of  Babylon  brought 
solar  phenomena  to  the  fore.^  That  the  moon  should  be  held 
as  sum7?ius  deus  (that  is  to  say,  by  initiates  :  it  is  the  abstract 
of  all  divine  power)  followed  naturally  in  niore  than  one  respect 
from  the  systeni  (see  my  article  on  "  Sin  "  in  Roscher's  Lexikon 
der  Mijthologie).  Beneath  the  heaven  of  the  seven  planets, 
that  of  the  moon  for  med  the  topmost  stage,  leading  into  the 
heaven  of  Ann.  Therefore  Sin  =  Anu  as  "  father  of  the  gods  "  and 
"  king  of  the  gods,"  p.  109,  i.     In  the  trinitarian  conception  of 

1  Comp.  Sura  vi.  76  :  "  Say  :  Truly  my  Lord  hath  led  me  in  the  right  way,  to 
the  faith  of  the  orthodox  Abraham,  who  was  no  idolater."  Islamism  is  the 
religion  of  Abraham. 

-  P.  86,  i.  Comp,  further,  Monotheist.  Strö/mmgen  innerhalb  der  babylon. 
Relio-ion,  Leipzig,  1904  ;  and  Baentsch,  Altorientalischer  und  israelitischer 
Monotheisvnis,  Tübingen,  1906. 

9 


10  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

the  clivine  power  which  we  may  gather  from  the  zodiac,  the 
nioon  was  held  as  father.^  The  conception  Ab,  that  is  "  (divine) 
father,"  in  the  name  Ab-rcun  bears  reference  to  the  nioon. 
(comp.  p.  16).  We  pos.^ess  a  hymn  to  Sin  of  Ur  which  praises  the 
moon  as  "  merciful  father.''  We  reproduce  here  a  passage  of 
this  magnificent  hymn  :  - 

Mighty  Guide,  wliose  deep  mind  no  god  may  penetrate  ; 

Swift  One,  whose  knee  -wearieth  not,  who  openeth   the  way  of  the 

gods,  his  brothers. 
Wlio  moveth  glittering  from  the  foimdatioii  of  the  heavens  to  the 

height  of  the  heavens, 
who  openeth  there  the  gutes  of  the  heavens,  bestowing  hght  ujjon 

all  mankind  ; 
Father,  begetter  of  all,  who  looketh  upon  all  things  living,   .... 

who  upon  ....  thinketh 
Lord,  who  holdeth  the  fate  of  heaven  and  earth,  %vhose  command 

none  (changeth) ; 
who  holdeth  fire  and  Avater,   \vho  guideth  all   things  living,   what 

god  is  like  unto  thee  } 
Who  in  heaven  is  exalted.''  Thou,  thou  only  art  exalted  ! 

Who  upon  eai-th  is  exalted  ?  Thou,  thou  only  art  exalted  ! 

At  thy  Word,  thine,  "when    it   resounds  in    heaven,  the   Igigi  cast 

themselves  upon  their  faces  ; 
at  thy  Mord,  thine,    -when  it  resounds  upon  earth,   the   Anunnaki 

kiss  the  ground. 
At  thy  word,   thine^  Avhen  it  goeth  forth  above  like  the  tempest, 

prosper  food  and  drink  ; 
at    thy  word,  thine^  when    it    cometh    down  upon  the   earth,  the 

green  things  arise. 
Thy  word,   thine,  maketh   fat   both    stall   and   herd,  increaseth  all 

things  living ; 
thy  woi'd,  thine,  maketh   truth    and  justice  to  arise,  so  that  men 

speak  truth. 
thy  word,  thine,  is  like  unto  the  chstant  heavens,  the  hidden  under- 

Avorld,  which  none  may  penetrate  ; 
thy  Avord,  thine,  who  may  understand  it,  who  is  like  unto  it.^ 
()  Lord,  in  dominion  in   the   heavens,  in  rule   upon  earth,  amongst 

the  gods  thy  brothers,  hast  thou  no  rivals ; 
King  of   Kings,  Mighty  One,  w'hose  command   none  may  dispute, 

there  is  no  god  like  unto  thee. 

We  can  naturally  only  conjecture  the  religious  motives  which 
led  to  the  migration  of  Abraham.  By  analogy  with  other 
phenomena  of  religious  history  in    the   Ancient-East,  we  may 

^  P.  109,  i.  -  Zimmern,  A.O.,  vii.  3,  13;  comp,  also  p.  17. 


RELIGION   OF    THE    PEOPLE    OF    ABRAHAM     11 

take  it  that  it  had  to  do  with  a  movement  of  reform,  protesting 
asainst  the  relisious  deo;eneration  of  the  rulinor  classes.^  Accord- 
ing  to  circumstances,  it  may  either  have  been  against  degenera- 
tion  in  moon-wor^hip,  or  it  may  have  been  a  protest  against 
the  cult  of  the  new  astronomical  age  (worship  of  Marduk,  see 
p.  73,  i.),"  introduced  by  the  Hamniurabi  dynasty.  In  neither 
case  would  it  have  to  do  Avith  a  total  denial  of  the  astral  System 
in  question,  but  only  with  a  protest  against  the  polytheistic 
worship  founded  upon  the  system.  The  teaching  itself  was  well 
known  to  the  holders  of  the  Yahveh  religion  in  the  patriarchal 
age,  just  as  it  was  at  later  stages  (in  Mosaic  and  prophetic 
religion).  This  shows  itself  in  the  astral-mythological  motifs,-^ 
so  far  as  they  are  made  use  of ;  and  more  than  all,  as  we  shall 
see  later,  in  the  symbolism  of  the  worship,  in  which  the 
elements  of  the  astral  system  were  retained."* 

In  Abraham,  therefore,  we  see  a  Mahdi.  The  march  out 
from  Babylonia  appears  to  us  a  hegira.  The  religious  move- 
ment under  Mohammed  öfters  in  many  points  an  historical 
analogy.  Like  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  so  that  of  Abraham 
is   a  reforming   advance   upon   the   current   intellectual    ideas.-^ 

1  Jevvish  and  Islamic  legends  uiake  Abraham  a  martyr  under  Nimrod.  We  are 
of  opinion  here  also  that  it  is  not  treating  of  phantoms  and  mere  speculations,  bat 
of  a  truth  of  religious  history  brought  forward  in  legendary  form  and  endowed 
with  mythological  motifs. 

-  Thus  now  Winckler,  Abi-ahatii  als  Babylon ier,  pp.  24  ff.  ;  the  Laws  of  Ham- 
niurabi, p.  xxxi. 

■'  Upon  the  traditions  of  Abraham,  see  pp.  16  ff.  Baentsch,  loc.  cvV.,  p.  60,  over- 
estimates,  in  our  opinion,  the  religious  meaning  of  these  poetic  motifs,  when  he 
assumes  that  they  are  a  sign  that  the  patriarchal  religion  was  unwilling  as  yet  to 
indicate  any  break  in  principle  with  the  astral  religion,  though  it  presented  a  step 
beyond  the  Ancient-Babylonian  religion. 

^  We  shall  include  in  this  symbolism  the  meaning  of  the  mountain  of  divine 
revelation,  Smai,  which,  according  to  Exod.  iii.  (it  is  here  called  Horeb),  was 
already  held  as  a  place  of  worship  in  the  patriarchal  age. 

'  Acts  vii.  2  seem  to  refer  to  a  tradition  according  to  which  Abraham  had 
already  carried  on  a  religious  propaganda  from  Ur  into  Mesopotamia.  The 
passage  states  that  Abraham  received  the  command  to  migrate  "in  Mesopotamia, 
before  he  dwelt  in  Haran." 

The  most  perverted  use  of  the  name  Mesopotamia  could  not  allow  of  Haran, 
Chief  city  of  Mesopotamia,  as  its  antithesis.  The  apocalyptical  history  of  Abraham 
does,  in  fact,  seem  to  be  aware  of  an  earlier  journey  to  Fandana,  i.e.  Padan  Aram 
(see  "  Apok.  Abrahams"  in  Studien  zur  Geschichte  der  Theologie  und  Kirche,  i. 
ist  ed.,  Bonwetsch) ;  comp,  article  on  Mesopotamia  in  Hauck,  R.P.  Th. ,  3rd  ed. 


12  ABRAHAM    AS    CANAANITE 

The  tradition  teils  of  visionary  events  in  Ur  (Neh.  ix.  T)  as  in 
Haran  (Gen.  xii.  1).  Following  the  divine  command,  he 
led  his  people  towards  the  Westland ;  towards,  as  it  appears, 
the  region  lying  beyond  the  realm  of  Babylonian  dominion. 
His  whole  life  in  Canaan  is  characterised  by  visionarv  and 
ecstatic  events:  Gen.  xii.  17;  xiii.  14;  xv.  1  ff.;  xvii.  1  ff.; 
particularly  xv.  12  ff. 

Now  appears  a  fact  in  füll  force,  which  can  neither  be 
proved  nor  refuted  by  means  of  historical-critical  investigation. 
Abraham  recognised,  in  his  own  life  and  in  the  edacation  of 
the  human  race,  the  power  of  the  living  God.^  God  revealed 
His  way  to  Abraham  and  the  working  of  His  power  to  the 
people  of  Abraham.  He  showed  Himself  as  the  merciful  God 
who  hears  prayer  and  forgives  sins.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  "  revelation  "  in  the  Biblical  sense,  which  finds  its  goal  in 
Christianity,  and  which,  in  its  beginnings  and  development, 
could  ahvays  only  work  through  individuals.  Only  religious  ex- 
perience  can  unravel  the  mystery  of  the  method.  But  one  law 
of  this  revelation  we  do  know.  It  never  falls  direct  from  heaven, 
but  is  always  closely  joined  on  to  what  has  been  already  given, 
and  works  by  refining  upon  a  gradual  religious  and  moral 
development.     We  can  only  offer  conjectures  as  to  other  detail. 

The  next  question  that  presents  itself  is,  whether  the  tradi- 
tions  that  have  come  down  to  us  permit  of  a  conclusion  (Rück- 
schluss)  upon  the  nature  of  the  religion  of  Abraham^s  time. 

Characteristic  names  for  God  are  in  the  traditions  of  the 
Patriarchs,  which  cannot  be  set  down  to  later  revision.-     The 

^  The  critic  nalurally  says  this  must  be  taken  in  the  sense  meant  in  later 
religion  of  the  prophets.  But  that  '\%  petitio  prhicipii.  Besides,  if  God  revealed 
Himself  to  the  prophets,  why  should  He  have  been  silent  in  the  beginning  of  the 
Israelite  religion  ?  If  it  is  asked  :  Where,  then,  was  His  revelation  before  Abraham  ? 
we  reply  with  Acts  xiv.  i6  :  "  He  suffereth  all  nations  to  go  their  own  way,"  but 
in  the  same  sense  as  in  Rom,  i.  19  ff.,  where  the  author  included  the  KadopäaSat 
TO.  aöpara,  that  is  to  say,  the  Bwap^is  Kai  Qiv6rr\s  of  God  in  nature.  With  the 
"  Father  of  the  Faithful "  began  the  new  era,  a  revelation  tending  towards  a 
dispensation  of  salvation. 

-  Baentsch,  loc.  cit.,  56:  "  They  would  scarcely  have  invented  an  ^ El  shaddai 
or  an  abstract  Elohim  specially  for  Abraham.  It  is  precisely  this  point,  therefore, 
in  which  we  must  see  an  ancient,  truly  historic  tradition,  not  to  be  lightly  set 
aside,  and  a  theology  which  so  inlentionally  niarks  itself  as  being  one  of  religious 
history  should  be  very  scrupulously  valued." 


RELIGION   OF  THE    PEOPLE    OF    ABRAHAM     13 

God  of  Abraham  was  called  V/  (Gen.  xxi.  33)  at  the  sanctuary 
of  Beer-sheba,^  "el  ^olam — is  it  possible  that  in  this  ancient 
name  'olam,  "  world  ''■'  is  denoted,  as  later  in  the  Jewish  ?  Space 
and  time  are  identical  to  the  Oriental  mind — "God  from  Ever- 
lasting,"  and  V/  shaddai  (Gen.  xvii.  1,  Exod.  vi.  3  ;  comp.  Gen. 
xlix.  25  f.),  for  which  no  satisfactory  interpretation  has  yet 
been  found.  The  divine  designation  Uu  does  not  in  itself  mean 
anything  more  than  a  general  conception  of  God.  Besides,  the 
same  divine  name  is  also  often  to  be  found  evidencine  a  mono- 
theistic  tendency  upon  Babylonian  and  Canaanite  ground ;  - 
the  plural  'elohim  is  found  also  in  the  Amarna  Letters,  ii.,  as 
designation  for  God  in  majesty  pluraUs  {iläni). 

Possibly  a  hint  as  to  the  nature  of  their  conception  of 
divinity  is  given  in  the  epithet  V/  'olam  applied  by  Abraham  to 
his  god  when  making  his  alliance  with  Abimelech.'  '£"/  '■olarn 
inay  mean  "  God  from  Everlasting/'  or  "  God  of  the  World  " 
{'olam  used  for  time  and  space),  as  specially  the  divinity  who 
(as  siimrnus  deus)  is  enthroned  at  the  north  point  of  the 
universe.^  The  meeting  with  Melchizedek  is  also  characteristic. 
Melchizedek,  priest  of  Jerusalem  (for  the  historical  view  of  this 
character,  see  pp.  27  ff.),  nanies  the  God  of  Abraham  V/  '•elyoii, 
Creator  (jl^'p,^  not  Sl'l)  of  heaven  and  earth  (Gen.  xiv.  19). 
Abraham  makes  use  of  the  same  name  in  speaking  with  the 
King  of  Sodom.  It  is  therefore  the  name  by  which  the  God  of 
Abraham  was  worshipped  in  Sichern  ;  see  Gen.  xiv.  22. 

In  regard  to  the  name  Yahveh  in  the  history  of  Abraham. 
From  the  form  of  the  tradition  we  may  naturally  quite  justifi- 

'  Well  of  the  "seven,"  i.e.  the  Pleiades,  which  represent  the  powers  of  the 
Underworld. 

-  Delitzsch,  ÄÄ/.,  4th  ed. ,  75  :  Ilu-amranni,  "  Ilu,  look  upon  me  "  ;  Ilu-turam, 
"  Ilu,  turn  thou  again  "  ;  Ilu-ittia,  "  Ilu  with  me '"  ;  Ilu  amtahar,  "  I  cry  unto  Ilu  "  ; 
Ilu-abi,  "Ilu  is  my  father  "  :  Iluma-ili,  "Ilu  is  god  "  ;  Shuma-ilu-la-ilia,  "  If  Ilu 
were  not  god,"  and  so  on.  On  the  Amarna  tablets  there  are  names  like  Shabi-ilu, 
Milki-ilu,  Ili-Milku,  Yabni-ilu  ;  with  this  comp.  Hommel,  Aliist:  Uberl.,  chap.  iii. ; 
and  now,  above  all,  Ranke,  Early  Baltyloiiian  Personal  Names,  Philadelphia,  1905. 

"  See  Klostermann,  Gesch.  Isr.,  p.  35,  where  he  rightly  contradicts  the  conjecture 
of  D^ii'  in  iv'^i',  and  supposes  the  name  shows  a  recognition  of  the  eternal  god  of  all. 

^  'Oin7>i,  antithesis  to  Qedem  as  south  point  (primeval  ocean  from  which  the 
World  proceeded) ;  see  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  305  f.  (also  upon  time  =  space).  This  is 
also  the  meaning  of  ''olani  in  Ps.  xxiv.  7. 

^  Compare  the  name  El-kana,  and  the  fact  of  the  name  of  God,  by  which  Elieser 
must  swear,  Gen,  xxiv.  3.     Or  nip  =  owner.     It  is  a  motif  word 


14  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

ably  refer  it  back  to  an  original  scripture.  At  the  same  tinie 
it  must  be  allowed  that  in  Babylonian  nomenclature  a  corre- 
sponding  name  also  existed,  in  the  form  Ya\i.^  In  passages  like 
Exod.  XV.  2  ("  my  father's  God  is  Jah  !  "),  Isa.  xii.  9,  (Jah  together 
with  Yahveh),  in  the  cry  hallelu-jah,  in  personal  nouns  joined 
on  to  in"',  this  Babylonian  form  of  the  name  of  God  seems  to 
present  itself."  But  even  if  the  designation  for  God  existed 
previouslv  in  the  patriai'chal  age,  that  would  give  no  evidence 
about  the  conception  of  God  in  the  primitive  period  of  Israel. 

Besides,  "  What's  in  a  name.^"  The  name  gives  no  clue  to 
the  idea  contained  in  the  conception.^  Chief  emphasis  is  laid 
by  the  tradition  upon  the  moral  relation  to  divinity,  indicating 
an  absolutely  new  position,  in  Opposition  to  polytheism  and 
astral  religion.  "■  Walk  before  me,  and  be  thou  perfect," 
Gen.  xvii.  1  ;  "  Yahveh,  before  whom  I  walk,"'  Gen.  xxiv.  40. 
In  every  part  of  the  tradition  the  story  gives  prominence  to  the 
way  in  which  Abraham's  circumstances  made  him  the  friend  of 
God  and  imparter  of  blessings  to  the  future. 

Now  in  what  way  did  Abraham  carry  out  his  propaganda  ? 
Surely  it  would  be  in  the  same  manner  as  St  Paul  in  Athens, 
or  the  Christian  missionaries  in  heathen  Germany.  He  joined 
it  on  to  existing  sanctuaries  and  cults,  having  a  special  prefer- 
ence  for  the  "  sacred  trees""  (pp.  207,  i.  ft'.).^  The  oracle  tree  of 
Moreh,  Gen.  xii.  6,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Canaanite 
holy  cities  of  Shechem,  and  the  oracle  tree  of  Mamre  in 
Hebron,  Gen.  xiii.  18,  represent  the  Tree  of  the  World. '^     Hei-e 

'  See  Delitzsch,  />./>.,  i.  74  f.  ;  comp.  Kampf  um  Babel  u)id  Bibel,  4th  ed., 
p.  20. 

-  In  the  tetiagrammaton  ni.T  we  see  a  ceienionious  diffeientiation  from  the 
"  heathen  "  name,  which  was  the  signal  for  a  reliyious  concentration  at  Sinai.  See 
Kampf  tun  Babel  und  Bibel,  4th  ed.,  p.  20  ;  Hommel,  Die  altor  Detikmäler  und 
das  Alte  Testament  Supplement. 

'  Our  Word  "god"  also  comesdown  from  heathendom,  just  as  does  the  9<Jy  of 
the  New  Testament  ;  compare  with  this  ntjw  also  Erbt,  Hebriier,  p.  39. 

■'  Gen.  xxi.  33  :  "  Ile  planted  a  tamarisk  tree  in  Beer-sheba,  and  called  there 
on  the  name  Yahveh  as  'el  'olam." 

''  According  to  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  406,  these  two  are  idenlical  :  Morch=  Mamre, 
the  one  belonging  to  the  tradition  which  made  Abraham  dwell  in  the  south 
(Hebron),  the  other  to  the  tradition  which  placed  his  history  in  the  north  (Sichem)  ; 
comp,  also  p.  26.  The  tree  of  Moreh  (nii3=instruction,  lil<e  Tliora)  corre- 
sponds  to  the  tree  of  knowledge  ;  see  pp.  207,  i.  f. 


RELIGION   OF   THE    PEOPLE    OF   ABRAHAM     15 

he  gathered  together  believers.  According  to  this  sense 
Luther's  translation  gives  the  correct  meaning :  "  He  preached 
the  name  of  the  Lord." 

Jewish  legends  amplify  this.  We  draw  attention  here  to  a 
fable  which  strikingly  recalls  the  milien  of  the  Sinuhe  story  : — 

Abraham  next  founded  a  refuge  for  homeless  Wanderers  ^  and 
entertained  them.  Instead  of  veceiving  any  recompense  or  thanks, 
he  referred  them  to  the  master  of  the  house.  '•'  Where  shall  we 
find  this  gracious  Being  ?  "  asked  the  wanderers.  •'  He  is  the  God 
VVho  has  made  heaven  and  earth.  "  And  when  they  desired  to 
know  how  to  pray  to  that  Almighty  Being,  he  taught  them  the 
woi'ds  (still  used  as  the  opening  formula  of  the  Jewisli  prayer  at 
meals  when  three  or  more  men  eat  together)  :  '•  Praised  be  the 
Everlasting,  the  ever  Blessed  ;  praised  be  the  God  of  the  Universe, 
from  Whose  boiinties  we  have  eaten  "  (comp.  Beer,  Lehen  Abrahams, 
Ivi.  174.). 

It  goes  withoiit  saving  we  do  not  assume  that  the  religion  of 
Israel  only  haiigs  on  "  thin  threads  from  the  long  past  ages." 
Just  as  the  history  of  morality  unfolded  itself,  so  also  did 
religion  in  Israel.  Only  here  also  we  niust  think  of  the  develop- 
nient  not  as  a  straight  line,  but  as  an  undulating  curve." 

The  conception  sketched  here  of  the  religion  of  Abraham  is 
in  Opposition  to  the  conception  of  the  so-called  "•  historical 
school,"  which,  parallel  with  its  construction  of  the  history, 
distinguishes  a  progressive  development  in  the  religion  of 
Israel:  (1)  Bedouin  religion-^  (2)  Peasant  religion-^  (3)  Religion 
of  the  prophets.  Though  we  also  recognise  as  relatively  correct 
that  Israel  passed  through  a  nomadic  and  an  agricultural 
period,  yet  this  "  development  ""^  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
Biblical  religion.  We  distinguish  absolutely  between  Yahveh 
religion  and  Israelite  populär  religion. 

The  populär  religion  of  Israel  was  pagan,  and  even  in  circles 

'   Comp.  p.  56,  the  founding  of  a  refuge  by  Jacob. 

-  On  the  other  band,  we  cannot  break  the  bnks  of  the  chain  by  which,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  the  history  of  the  religious  Community,  later  known  as  a  nation 
under  the  name  of  "  Children  of  Israel,"  is  bound  to  Abraham  as  founder  of  its 
rehgion  ("  Father  of  the  Faithful "),  even  if  not  in  an  ethnological  sense  (see  p. 
5  and  comp.  pp.  42  ff.).  Baentsch,  loc.  cif.,  still  holds  firmly  to  the  opinion 
which  looks  upon  Abraham  as  a  Canaanite  character,  holding  that  the  Israelite 
tradition  took  the  Canaanite  tradition  of  Abram  and  put  Abram  into  the  place  of 
honour  amongst  the  Patriarchs  of  Israel. 


16  ABRAHAM   AS   CANAANITE 

where  Yahveh  was  included  in  the  religious  conception  as 
'*  God  of  Gods,""  it  still  remained  a  Yahveh-poptdar  religion, 
saturated  with  pagan  conceptions  (for  an  example,  see  p.  48). 
Pure  Yahveh  reügion  was  the  ideal,  fostered  by  the  religious 
leaders  and  by  religiously  stimulated  circles.  From  the  first 
there  was  a  "  spiritual  Israel."  But  only  at  critical  points  of 
their  historical  development  were  the  people  seized  by  an 
Impulse  of  the  pure  religion.  For  this  reason  their  condition 
was  rightly  held  to  be  one  of  "  revolt."  The  prophets  called  to 
them  to  "  return."  A  development,  in  the  sense  held  by  the 
"  historical  school,"  holds  good  only  of  certain  phenomena  of 
the  populär  religion,  which  stood  in  Opposition  to  the  Yahveh 
religion.^ 

^  Astral  Mythological  Motifs 

The  stories  of  Abram  are  endowed  with  special  astral  motifs^ 
because  Abram  (with  Lot)  is  the  foundcr  of  a  iieir  era,  as  the 
blessing  in  Gen.  xii.  3  f.  expressiv  says. 

Oriental  historical  stories  always  endow  the  bringer  of  a  new  era 
with  the  motifs  of  the  asti*al  figare  who  represents  the  beginning 
of  the  age.*  Abram  lived  in  the  Marduk  age  ;  see  pp.  73,  i.  f.  The 
religious  movement,  into  which  he  entered,  would  be  directed 
against  the  ruling  cult.  The  preceding  age  was  that  of  the  Moon, 
or  of  the  Twins,  as  has  been  shown  at  pp.  71,  i.  ff.  In  speaking 
about  Abram,  ancient  Canaanite  records  would  be  induced,  for  this 
reason,  to  let  traces  of  the  corresponding  motifs  of  those  ages  show 
in  the  presentment.  It  is  to  be  observed  here  that  the  critical 
point,  giving  the  motifs,  did  not,  as  in  the  Marduk  age,  lie  in  the 
spring  poiiit,  but  in  the  solstice  (see  pp.  S-i,  i.  f.  and  fig.  14). 

Whether  the  author  of  our  text  still  understood  the  allusions  is 
another  question.  Possibly  many  such  features  were  lost  in  his 
work  of  recapitulation.     Later  Judaism,  again,  learnt  to  know  the 

'  And  also  this  development  is  differently  formed  throughout,  as  the  predominat- 
ing  view  presupposes,  which  Starts  from  low  forms  of  animism  and  totemism,  etc. 
The  populär  religion  was  astral  religion  with  phenomena  in  nature  emphasised 
which  move  in  parallel  course  to  the  star  cycle.  Comp.  A.  Jeremias,  Der  Ein- 
flusi  Babylojüens  auf  das  Verständnis  des  Alten  Testaments,  1906,  and  Winckler's 
work  named  in  note,  p.  16.  The  deductions  given  above  are  taken  from  a  pre- 
sentment of  the  "  connection  of  Babylonian  religion  with  Israelite  religion"  which 
the  author  laid  before  the  theological  Conference  at  Eisenach,  Whitsuntide  1906. 
At  the  same  time  appeared  Winckler's  work,  Religionsgeschichtler  und  geschicht- 
licher Orient,  an  examination  of  the  suppositions  in  the  "  considerations  of 
religious  history "  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  school  of  Wellhausen,  and 
Baentsch,  Altorient,  und  israelit.  Alonotheisvius :  Ein  Wort  zur  Revision  der 
entvjickelungsgeschichtlichen  Auffassung  der  israelitischen  Religionsgeschichte. 


NAMES   OF   THE   PEOPLE   OF   ABRAHAM       17 

motifs  and  revivified  the  teaching,  as  is  shown  by  the  construction 
of  the  pseud-epigraphical  writings  and  the  Rabbinical  fables. 

1.  The  Astral  Char acter  of  the  Xame. — Ab-i'am  is  a  pure  Baby- 
lonian  name.^  It  signifies  "the  (divine)  father  is  sublime"; 
comp.  Ab-ner,  "the  (divine)  father  is  the  light."  They  had  a 
special  preference  for  designating  the  Moon-god  as  "father"  (Sin 
abu  ilani,  comp.  p.  109,  i)  ;  for  example,  in  the  hymn  to  the  Moon- 
god  Sin  of  Ur,  the  home  of  Terah,  IV.  R.  9,  he  is  called  upon 
nine  times  as  "father,"  and  it  is  said  amongst  other  things  : - 

Merciful,  gracious  Father,  in  whose  band  lies  the  life  of  the  whole  land, 

Lord,    thy   divinity   is    like   the  far   heaven,   like  the    vvide   sea,   fiüing    with 

awe,  .... 
Father,    begetter    of  gods   and    men,    who   establisheth   dwellings,  ordaineth 

sacrifice, 
Who  calleth  to   the   kingdotn,   lendeth   the   sceptre,   who   ordaineth   Fate   to 

distant  days. 

Compare  also  1  Kings  xvi.  34  :  Abiram  with  the  name  Abram. 

In  South  Arabian  inscriptions  the  theophorous  names  with  Ab  = 
Moon-god  bear  evidence  of  being  specially  priests'  names.  Comp. 
Ab  as  designation  of  priest  in  Judges  xvii,  9  ;  Elisha  is  so  called  by 
the  king.  The  name  therefore  points  perhaps  to  a  priestly  character 
of  Abraham.  The  other  name,  Abraham,  introduced  in  P  (Gen. 
xvii,  5)  as  a  re-naming,  and  signifying  "Father  of  Tumult,"  would 
correspond  to  Sin  as  Qarid  ilani,  "  War  hero  of  the  Gods";  see  p.  6. 

Sarai's  •^  name  corresponds  to  the  designation  of  the  Moon-goddess 
of  Harran  :  Nikkal-sharratu  (.yÄrt/7-«/«  =  queen) ;  and  the  name  of 
Abraham's  sister-in-law,  Milka,  fits  together  with  Malkatu,  an 
epithet  applied  to  Ishtar.^  She  appears  as  the  beautiful  sister-wife 
of  Abraham  and  receives  the  veil.     Gen.  xx.  6. 

In  the  name  of  Abram's  father,  Terah,  possibly  the  name  for  the 
moon,   Yerah,  may  be   veiled ;   the   name   might   be   intentionally 

^  The  much-quoted  name  upon  a  contract  tablet  of  King  Apil-Sin  (grandfather 
of  Hammurabi)  should  not  be  read  Abi-ramu,  but  (with  Ranke)  Abi-erah,  "  the 
moon  is  my  father."  But  the  Assyrian  eponym  of  the  year  677-76  (see  K.B.,  i. 
207  ;  comp.  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  482),  bore  the  same  name:  Abi-rama 
likewise,  the  sister  of  Esarhaddon's  mother  ;  see  Johns,  Deeds  No.  70,  Rev.  vi. 
^■3.xik^,\n  Personal  Nantes,  records  (p.  S6),  as  variant  for  Hammurabi,  Ha-am- 
mi-ra-am,  which  means  "  my  (divine)  uncle  is  subUme.''  By  this,  therefore, 
according  to  the  meaning,  Hammurabi  had  the  same  name  as  his  contemporary 
(pp.  23  f.)  Abraham.  Compare  again  Hommel  in  P.S.B.A.,  May  1S94,  and 
Anc.   Heb.    Trad. 

-  Zimmern,  A'.A.T.,  yd  ed.,  607  ff.  A.O.,  vii.  3.  For  another  passage  from 
this  hymn,  see  pp.  10  f. 

•'  Sa-ra-ai,  name  in  a  cuneiform  lettev,  K  1274,  Obv.  2.  n-il:',  Sappo,  is  the 
Canaanite  form  ;  "iz",  Sa-ra-ai,  Arabic  Aramaic  feminine  form  (Hommel,  G.G.G., 
p.  186,  3rd  ed.). 

■*  See  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  364  f.  For  the  divine  name,  contained  in 
Nahor,  see  ibid.  477  f. 

VOL.     II.  2 


18  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

mutilated,  as  was  oiten  done  with  the  theophorous  names  of 
'•' pagan  "  characters.^ 

The  name  Laban  denotes  the  moon  (Hebrew  poetiy,  lehana, 
Song  of  Songs,  vi.  9  ;  Isa.  xxiv.  23,  xxx.  26,  and  in  the  Jewish 
planetary  days  of  the  week  the  name  for  Monday).- 

2.   Moon-Motifs  in  the  Stories  oj  Abraham.^ 

(a)  The  niimbev  318  in  Gen.  xiv.  l-t,  -which  is,  however, 
cei'tainly  not  historic.  It  is  the  number  of  warriors  given  in  stovies 
of  fights  embellished  \vith  mythological  motifs.  It  is  the  number 
of  days  in  the  lunar  year  when  the  moon  is  visible  (35-^  days  less 
12x3  days  of  dark  moon  =  318  days).  In  Abraham's  warfare  with 
enemies,  318  companions  support  him,  as  the  moon  in  Avarfare 
against  the  davkness  has  Hght  318  days.^  They  are  for  this  reason 
mysteriously  named  in  Gen.  xiv.  14  hanikim,  the  meaning  of  whieh 
is  people  of  the  siin ;  see  p.  239,  i-j,  and  p.  32.  If  the  cabalistic  sign 
for  the  name  of  Eliezer,  Abraham's  servant,  is  equivalent  to  the 
number  318,  that  would  show  that  late  Judaism  knew  astral 
symbohsm  thoroughly.  In  Christian  symbolism  the  numl^er  318  is 
often  met  with  right  into  the  Middle  Ages. 

(6)  The  number  13  for  the  beginning  of  action,  Gen.  xiv.  4: 
"  Twelve  years  they  served  Chedorlaomer,  and  in  the  thirteenth 
year  they  rebelled."  This  is  distinctly  a  lunar  number.  The 
lunar  year  (354)  requires  twelve  additional  days  for  equalisation 
with  the  solar  year.  These  twelve  days  are  eurrent  as  lying 
"  between  the  years,"  like  the  five  epagomenae  in  the  equalisation 
of  360  and  305,  new  year  festival  days.  We  know  them  as  the 
twelve  days  with  fateful  nights  at  the  turn  of  the  year,  ending  in 
England  with  Twelfth  Night.  With  the  thirteenth  day  the  new 
year  begins.  This  is  why  Mohammed,  the  Moon-worshipper,  was 
born,  aceording  to  the  legends  (Ibn  Hisham,  102),  on  the  thirteenth 
of  Rebi'  I,  and  on  a  Monday.^ 

(c)  The  moon  is  '''^the  Wanderer."  Possibh/  this  motif  also  was 
in  the  rnind  of  the  chronicler  in  naming  the  chief  halting-places 

'  Winckler,  Gesch.  Is.,  ii,  23,  spoke  in  this  connection  of  Abraham  as  a  "  heroic 
precipitation  of  the  Moon-god,"  and  of  "the  figure  of  Abraham  as  emanation  of 
the  Moon-god."  Stucken  forms  the  same  opinion  in  his  astral  myths.  But  later 
Winckler  escaped  this  sophism.  The  opinion  of  Procksch,  Nordhebr.  Sagenbuch, 
p.  332,  on  "the  celestial  historical  astrology  which  looks  for  the  terrestrial 
patriarchs  in  the  wrong  places,"  and  which  for  this  reason  "  need  not  be  taken  into 
consideration,"  does  not  fall  in  with  the  Interpretation  of  either  Winckler  or  myself. 

^  Has  the  divine  name  Ilu  La-ban,  III.  R.  66,  6'^,  to  do  with  this?  It  follows 
Nebo,  and  it  precedes  Shamash  and  Bei  labiru,  therefore  probably  Sin  (see 
Hommel,  Assyrian  Notes,  50,  where  the  list  III.  R.  66  is  transcribed). 

'  Baentsch,  Altorient,  und  israel.  Monotheisvms,  sees  in  the  moon  motifs  with 
which  the  tradition  of  Abram  is  endowed  an  indication  that  the  religion  of  Abram 
does  not  yet  mean  any  break  in  principle  with  that  religion.  In  my  opinion  this 
is  an  overestimalion  of  the  motifs.  ■*  See  Baentsch,  loc.  cit,,  pp.  61  f. 

■'  Comp.  Winckler.  F.,  ii.  350,  266.      For  another  example,  see  p.  86. 


ASTRAL  MOTIFS  IN  THE  STORY  OF  ABRAHAM    19 

of  the  march.  Abraham  moved  from  east  to  west,  like  the  moon. 
Harran,  the  city  of  Bel-Harran^  means  "  way " ;  Gerar,  where 
Abraham  dwelt  as  a  stranger,  contains  a  play  of  words  on  girru, 
"path,"  In  Gen.  xiii.  3  Abraham  Avent  "  unto  the  place  where 
his  tent  had  been  at  the  beginning,"  vyD^ob,  hke  the  moon,  as 
has  been  observed  by  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  4-07. 

We  find  the  same  motif  aa:ain  in  the  misration  to  Sinai.  The 
Word  only  appears  among  the  halting-places  of  the  journey  through 
the  wildei'ness ;  see  p.  106. 

3.  Ttvin  (^Diosnin)  Motif. — This  motif,  w^hich  plaees  moon  and 
sun  in  Opposition,  ^  is  shoAvn  in  the  story  of  Abram  and  Lot.  They 
represent  the  new  age.  Therefore  their  history  is  endowed  with 
Dioscuri  motifs.-  If  the  suramer  solstice  is  taken  as  the  beginning 
of  the  new  age,  then  one  of  the  Twins  bears  lunar  motifs  at 
the  apogee  (see  fig.  14,  p.  35);  tlie  other  bears,  in  Opposition, 
motifs  of  the  sun,  in  the  Underworld.^^  The  Twins  are  the 
parted,  that  is  to  say,  the  hostile  brothers.  This  is  the  motif  in 
Gen.  xiii.  9  : 

■'•'If  thou  wilt  take  the  left  band,  then  I  will  go  to  the 
right ;  or  if  thon  wilt  go  to  the  right  band,  then  I  will  go  to 
the  left." 

Further,  the  motif  of  hospitality,'^  belongs  to  the  Dioscuri.  Abram 
and  Lot  entertain  celestial  visitors ;  Gen.  xviii.  3  ff.  and  xix.  3. 
Further,  the  motif  of  support.  Hygin's  account  of  the  chivalrous 
Support  given  to  Castor  by  Pollux  (fab.  Ixxx.)  shows  numerous 
motifs  related  to  the  allusive  stories  in  Gen.  xiv.  Finally,  the 
motif  of  renouncement  of  reivard. 

The  ßabylonian  teaching  shows  us  (pp.  ob,  i.  f.,  125)  that  the 
moon  as  well  as  the  sun  (likewise  the  third  great  star  Venus)  may 
appear  in  the  Hgure  of  Tammuz,  in  so  far  as  they  all  sink  into  the 
Lnderworjd  and  rise  ag-ain.  Legends  outside  the  Bible  are  fond  of 
attaching  Tammuz  motifs  to  the  figure  of  Abraham.  Abram,  cast 
into  the  fiery  furnace  by  Nimrod,^  and  rescued  from  it,  corresponds 

^  T\vins  =  sun  and  moon,  or  the  giowing  and  waning  moon  (two  faces,  comp. 
Janus  as  Moon-god,  p.  72,  i.)  ;  ov,  in  the  fixed-star  heaven,  which  is  a  commentaiy 
upon  the  planetary  heaven,  Castor  and  Pollux. 

'"  P.  17,  comp.  pp.  76,  i,  ff.  Moses  has  the  motifs  of  the  liüer,  Taurus  (Marduk) 
age  ;  see  Exod.  ii.      Lot  takes  the  place  of  the  dead  father. 

^  uiS  means  "  veiling."  Here  also  there  is  a  play  upon  the  words.  The  old 
astral  mythological  interpretations  (Dupuis,  Nork)  already  kept  this  in  mind  : 
"  Abraham  from  Ur  (city  of  light)  and  Lot  (darkness)  could  not  live  together." 

'  "  Dioscuri  maxime  hospitales  sese  prsebent  "  ;  see  Jos.  Schmeitz,  De  Dioscuris 
Gntcorum  düs,  cap.  5,  quotation  p.  39.  Quoted  according  to  Stucken,  Astral- 
mythen, pp.  82  f. ;  also  to  be  compared  with  the  following  :  "  It  goes  withoutsaying 
that  such  assonances  might  be  accidental.  But  the  acceptance  of  such  accident  is 
no  longer  justifiable  when  the  small,  seemingly  unimportant  analogies  multiply 
and  link  together." 

'  Quoted  passages  in  Beer's  Leben  Abrahams. 


20  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

to  Tammuz  sinking  into  death  at  the  heat  point  and  rising  again. 
Tammuz  is  also,  as  is  known,  a  hunter.^  In  the  fahles  of  Og  it 
says  : 

"  bold  and  zealous,  like  nnto  the  hiintsvum  armed  with  his  weapons, 
is  this  Abraham."  - 

The  Arabs  also  recognise  the  Tammuz  character  of  Abraham. 
The  river  Adonis,  rising  in  Lebanon  and  having  at  its  source 
sanetuaries  of  Ishtar  and  Tanunuz  (p.  99  f-,  fig-  31),  is  called  in 
Arabic  Nah r- Ibrahim. 

But  our  Biblieal  story  also  recognises  the  Tammuz-Ishtar  motif 
The  journey  of  Abraliam  with  his  sister  and  wife  (!)  Sarah,  to 
Egvpt  •'•  is  presented  there  as  a  descent  into,  and  a  rescue  from, 
the  Underworld.  As  south,  Egypt  is  the  Underworld  ;  see  p.  30,  i. 
When  Ishtar,  the  primeval  Mother,  deseends  into  the  Underworld  all 
fertility  ceases,  as  the  well-known  Babylonian  text  of  the  "  descent 
into  hell  of  Ishtar  "  dramatically  represents.  The  chronicler  hints 
this.  Gen.  xii.  17:  the  house  of  Pharaoh  was  "  plagiied  "  because 
of  Sarah.  What  was  the  plague?  The  duplicate  passage  (Gen.  xx. 
17  f)^says:  sterility  had  come  upon  the  women.  No  one  eould 
take  this  to  be  historical  even  in  the  mind  of  the  chronicler.  The 
story  refines  upon  the  motif  According  to  Gen.  xx.  17,  Abime- 
lech  falls  ill  as  punishment,  not  the  women.  Also  in  the  unfruit- 
fulness  of  Sarah,  changed  into  fruitfulness,  the  Ishtar  character 
is  indicated  by  the  stress  laid  upon  the  word  mpy.''  Final ly,  the 
motif  of  deliverance  out  of  the  Underworld  lies  in  the  story  of  the 
rescue  of  Lot.  Lot  is  in  Sodom  =  Underworld.  As  he  has  the 
sun  motif  (with  Abraham  as  Moon  Dioscurus),  his  partner  (Lot's 
wife),  has  lunar  character.  Sun  and  moon  desert  the  Underworld. 
The  astronomical  picture  (hg.  1 .5),  shows  the  appertaining  motifs. 
The  moon  rises.  So  soon  as  he  turns  round,  he  falls  again  into  the 
Underworld.  Lot's  wife  turns  round  and  dies.  In  the  heavens 
the    constellation    Orion   corresponds    to    Tamniuz,    rising    in    the 

^  The  moon  also  is  hunter,  in  so  far  ns  he  bears  the  Tammuz  character  ;  see 

P-  35,  i. 

-  Beer,  loc.  cii.,  p.  29. 

"  That  is  to  say,  Muzri,  which,  however,  in  cosmic  as  also  in  physical  geography, 
was  reckoned  as  Egypt  (pp.  286,  i.  f.). 

''  It  is  to  be  noted  that  Abimelech  wishes  really  to  marry  Sarai,  Gen.  xx.  2  : 
then  Abimelech  sent  and  took  Sarah  (ni:'X  np'7  =  Assyrian  ahazu  as/ts/ia/a,  here 
in  the  sense  of  marriage).  By  a  dream  in  the  night  Yahveh  prevents  him,  as 
Asmodai  does  the  husbands  of  Sarah,  daughter  of  Reguel,  Tobit  iii.  8  ;  see 
VVinckler,  F.,  üi.  414,  who  explains  the  "covering  of  the  eyes"  (Gen.  xx.  16) 
also  surely  correctly  as  vei7  (chief  part  of  the  rieh  dowry  given  by  Abimelech  to 
Sarah)  :  an  allusion  to  the  veiled  Ishtar,  comp.  Gen.  xxiv.  65. 

^  nip\!  is  everywhere  motif  word  in  this  sense  :  Gen.  xi.  30  (Sarah),  xxv.  21 
(Rebekah)  xxix.  31  (Leah  and  Rachel);  Judges  xiii.  2  f.  (the  wife  of  iManoah  !) ; 
Ex.  xxiii.  26  ;  Deut.  vii.  14 ;  l  Sam.  ii.  5  ;  Isa.  liv.  i  ;  Fs.  cxiii.  9,  in  describing 
the  blessed  age  ;  likewise  Job  xxiv.  21.     These  are  complete  passages. 


THE   CAMPAIGN   OF   ABRAHAM  21 

Summer  solstice  and  setting  in  the  winter  solstice.i  Therefore  in 
the  journey  to  Egypt  of  Abraham  \ve  may  equally  well  see  Osiris- 
Sirius  (feminine  Sothis)  as  the  wedded  brother  and  sister  Tammuz- 
Ishtar.  The  story  of  Jacob  (see  Gen.  xxxii.  10),  where  we  find 
Orion  motifs  (see  p]).  51  f.),  shows  that  Stucken  is  not  in  error  with 
this  idea.  And  Jacob  is  a  character  who,  as  bringer  of  a  new 
epoch  (pp.  51  ff.),  corresponds  to  Abraham.  ^     See  Appendix. 

The  Cami'aign  ov  Abrahajh  "^ 
In  Gen.  xiv.  Abraham  "the  Hebrew"  appears  as  leader 
and  adviser  of  the  Canaanite  (Amorite)  tribes  against  the 
"  kings  of  the  nations,''  just  as  the  Egyptians  relate  of  their 
Sinuhe  (pp.  826,  i.  ff.)  about  2000  b.c.  This  story  belongs  to  a 
class  of  writing  which  is  unique  in  the  ränge  of  Old  Testament 
hterature ;  also  in  the  ränge  of  cuneiform  writing  it  cannot  up 
to  the  present  be  located,  but  it  is  found  in  Egyptian  writings. 

In  1869  Th.  Noeldeke  explained  the  chapter  as  being  an 
invention  with  a  purpose,  of  a  later  time,  and  Wellhausen  takes 
this  decision  to  be  "  irrefu table  and  incontrovertible."  Ed. 
Meyer,  GeschicJüe  des  Alterfums,  i.,  holds,  with  Stade,  that 
Gen.  xiv.  is  the  latest  passage  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  gives  the 
following  opinion:  "  It  seems  that  the  Jew,  who  introduced  the 
story  in  Gen.  xiv.,  must  have  learnt  in  Babylon  very  exact  detail 
of  the  most  ancient  history  of  the  land,  and,  impelled  by  some 
motive  unknown  to  us,  he  put  Abraham  into  the  history  of 
Kudurlagamar  {i.e.  Chedorlaomer) ;  for  the  rest,  he  then  ela- 
borated  his  story  according  to  the  Jewish  view  of  ancient  times."3 
Against   this    GunkeH    has    lately  recognised    in  his  Geiiesi.s  that 

1  The  Summer  solstice  is  first  of  all  death-point  of  Tammuz-Orion.  But  the 
death  and  resuriection  are  celebrated  in  cult  close  after  each  other :  after  three 
days  by  lunar  calculation  (see  pp.  35,  i.  f.).  Firmicus  Maternus  says  in  de  errore  pro/. 
reL,  "  quem  paulo  ante  sepeheiant,  revixisse  jactant."  The  rising  of  Orion  in  the 
Summer  solstice  corresponds  to  the  new  moon.  In  the  fourfold  division  of  the 
year  the  corresponding  festival  quarter  is  the  new  moon  (that  is  to  say,  füll  moon), 
before  the  beginning  of  spring.  The  companion  picture  to  Orion  as  bringer  of  a 
new  age  in  the  summer  solstice  (Dragon-slayer,  for  which  reason  Nimrod  =  Orion, 
see  p.  290,  i.  ;  Osiris  =  Orion,  Hercules  =  Orion,  see  Gen.  xxxii.  10)  is  the  savage 
Orion,  the  drunken,  brawling  giant,  whose  motifs  are  sounded  in  the  stories  of 
Goliath  and  Nabal. 

"  Comp.  Clemens  Alex.,  Admon.  ad gettt.,  p.  16. 

•*  That  these  pictures  are  "  entirely  unhistoric,"  as  Ed.  Meyer  says,  the  author 
would  not  himself  be  prepared  to  assert,  after  the  discovery  of  the  Hammurabi 
Code  (comp.  pp.  34  ff.,  legal  customs  of  the  tribe  of  Abraham). 

^  The  remark  in  the  first  edition,  A.  T.A.O.,  that  Gunkel  was  the  first  to  take 
the  monumental  researches  into  serious  consideration  from  the  theological  side, 


22  ABRAHAM    AS    CANAANITE 

the  story  contains  ancient,  certain  historical  facts,  above  all  in 
regard  to  the  historical  setting  of  the  story.  But,,  on  the  other 
hand.  he  judges,  with  Noeldeke,  that  it  contains  inipossibilities — 
as  in  the  niilitary  achievement  of  x\brahamj  and  in  the  supposition 
of  the  existence  of  the  yet  to  come  Sodom  and  Gomorrha.  The 
story  contains  therefore,  in  glaring  contrast,  things  well  authenti- 
cate'd  and  utter  inipossibilities.  H.  Winckler,  Geschichte  Israels,  ii. 
26  ff.  (then  still  ander  strong  influence  of  the  literary  critical 
methods),  analyses  the  tradition  given  in  Gen.  xiv.  in  three 
parts  : — 

1.  An  Israelite  chronicler  whose  literary  education  was  founded 
upon  the  cuneiforni  tablet  writings,  and  who  possibly  had  charge 
of  the  correspondence  between  the  Israelite  and  Babylonian 
courts,  learnt  to  know  hymns  upon  Chedorlaonier  and  Tidal,'  in 
which  historical  events  of  campaigns  towards  the  '*  VVestland/'  and 
of  a  fight  in  the  vale  of  Siddim,  were  glorified  in  mythological 
form. 

2.  The  Elohist  took  their  account  over  on  to  his  own  ground, 
and  identified  the  Habiri  Sheikh,  who  conquered  the  kings,  with 
Abram. 

.3.  The  'h'aln  ist  added  passages  aboiit  Sodom  and  Lot  and  about 
Melchizedek;,  and  so  on,  to  it.  In  his  work  Abraham  als  Baht/lonicr 
Winckler  lavs  stress  upon  "  the  fact  of  the  historical  background  in 
the  stories  of  the  Patriarchs "  ;  it  is  not  likely  that  the  other 
orally  transmitted  stories  would  throw  no  light  on  the  personal 
history  of  Abraham,  but  probably  the  Intention  of  the  tradition 
was  to  show  the  great  world-wide  political  background  of  the  age, 
and  to  place  the  land  Abraham  sought  in  connection  with  the 
questions  which  were  agitating  the  East  of  that  day.  Winckler 
also  holds  to  the  opinion  that  from  the  tradition  in  Gen.  xiv.  1 
Alnaham  must  be  taken  to  be  a  contemporary  of  Hanmiurabi, 
and  that  his  migration  intimates  an  Opposition  to  the  religious 
upheaval  by  which  the  dominion  of  the  first  dynasty  of  Babylon 
was  marked,  putting  the  worship  of  Marduk,  the  saving  spring 
god,  in  place  of  the  ancient  moon-worship.  Fr.  Hommel, 
Alf  Ix.  Ühcrliefcrung,  153,  holds  the  entire  chapter  to  be  very  old  ; 
that  the  probably  Babylonian  original  composition  was  saved  in  a 
Hebrew  translation  in  the  archives  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
from  the  archives  of  the  pre-Israelite  kings  of  Salem."     Erbt,  Die 

has  been  called  a  "crying  injustice"  by  some  interested  parties.  Certainly  Budde 
(from  whom,  however,  the  objeclion  did  noi  come)  in  his  book  Die  biblische 
Urr^esc/üc/Uc  shows  already  a  decided  step  in  this  respect.  Later  Budde  left  the 
Irack  herc  indicated. 

'  Such  poems  have,  in  fact,  been  found  in  modern  Rabylonian  transcriptions. 
There  are  names  in  them  which  correspond  to  Tid'al  (Tudhulu),  and  possibly  to 
Chedorlaomer  ;  see  p.  23. 

^  Dillmann  had  already  expressed  the  view  that  the  author  of  Gen.  xiv.  drew 
from  a  Canaanite  tiadition. 


THE   CAMPAIGN    OF   ABRAHAM  23 

Hebräer,  pp.  6 1  fF.  combats  the  "  analysing  of  the  Book  of  Genesis 
into  fables  "  by  Gunkel,  and  seeks  to  prove  that  there  is  an  un- 
broken  chain  of  tradition  linking  the  stories  of  the  Patriarchs  with 
the  later  time. 

Gen.  xiv.   1  ff.  relates : 

'■'And  it  came  to  pass  in  the  days  of  Amraph{el)s,^  when 
Arioch  mied  over  Shinar  {Babylon),  k'ing  of  Ellasar  (Larsa), 
that  Chedorlaonier,  king  of  Elam,  and  Tidal,  k'mg  of  Goiirn, 
made  loar 

against  Bera\  king  of  Sodom,  Birsha\  hing  of  Gomorrha, 
Shinab,  king  of  Adviah,  Shenieber,  king  of  Zeboiim,  and  the 
king  of  Bela  {that  is,  Zoar): 

all  these  assembled  themselves  in  the  vale  of  Siddim  {that  is, 
the  Salt  Sea). 

Txcelve  years  they  served  Chedorlaomer ;  and  in  the  thirteenth 
year  ^  they  rebelled. 

But  in  the  fouiieenth  year  came  Chedorlaomer,  and  the  kings 
that  were  zoith  hini.'" 

The  Mahdi  Abraham  came  to  the  help  of  his  comrade  Lot, 
who  was  in  danger.  The  pohtical  statements  agree  with  history. 
"In  the  days  of  Hammurabi,''  whose  contemporary  Abraham 
is  Said  to  be,  in  the  first  place  there  reigned  over  Shinar 
(  =  Sumer — South  Babylonia  .'^)  a  king  of  Larsa,  whose  name 
(Rim-Sin,  or  Arad  Sin)  might  read  in  Sumerian  as  Eri-Aku. 
It  is  recorded  that  the  tribes  of  Canaan  paid  tribute  for  twelve 
years  (possibly  since  a  triumphant  Elamite  campaign  against  the 
"  Westland  ■"),  and  in  the  thirteenth  year  they  rebelled,  i.e., 
refused  to  pay  tribute.  For  this  they  had  to  be  punished. 
The  objection  :  "  How  can  the  small  tribal  kings  of  the 
Valley  of  Siddim  be  brought  into  connection  with  the  powerful 

^  Accoiding  to  Hüsing,  the  /  at  the  end  of  the  name  Amraphel  should  belong  to 
the  following  word  :  ii-melok  ;  compare  with  it  the  dating  on  the  inscription  of 
Eshmunazar  (Lidzbarski,  Handbuch  der  nordse/nit.  Epigraphik,  417  ;  comp. 
Landau,  Beitr.  zur  Altert umskunde  des  A.O.,  iJ.,  5.  I,  6  i):  ■l'jc  o'^ob.  But  the 
interpietation  lemains  giammatically  difficult  and  without  analogy  in  the  Hebrew. 
Possibly  the  /  may  be  explained  more  simply  from  the  attested  reading  of  Hanimü 
rabih  (Johns,  P.S.B.A.  xxix.  177-184,  Rev.  30:  Ha-m-mu-ra-bi-ih).  i:\<\%  rabih 
is  synonym  for  rapashtu,  rapaltu  "  far  off."  Possibly  the  Hebrew  paraphrase 
involves  the  form  rapa/tii. 

2  lipon  the  motif  12/13,  see  pp.  iS  f.     Another  example,  p.  86. 


24  ABRAHAM   AS   CANAANITE 

empire  of  the  world  ? "  is  answered.  The  stoiy  also  by  no 
means  requires  the  assumption  that  King  Chedorlaomer  and 
his  allies  went  in  person  against  them.  The  kings  of  the  empiie 
of  the  world  did  not  personally  mount  the  war  chariot,  when 
it  was  a  question  of  punishing  tribute-failing  vassals.  But  it 
is  part  of  the  cerenionious  style  of  annal-writing  to  name  the 
king  as  representative  of  his  arniy,  even  if  he  were  not  personally 
with  it.  The  nnmbers  would  not  be  very  enornious  upon 
either  side  ;  Abrahani's  318  hanikhn  would  not  in  itself  give 
occasion  for  hesitation,  even  if  this  number  of  mythological 
motif  (p.  18)  were  the  round  number  meaning  a  small  number. 
The  Canaanite  kings  and  governors  in  the  Amarna  Letters 
beg  for  comparatively  small  bands  for  rescue  from  enemies.^ 

The  defenders  of  the  historical  accuracy  of  Gen.  xiv.  in  the 
last  few  years  laid  great  value  on  the  proof  that  the  names  of  the 
Babylonian  Elamite  kings  are  identical  with  certain  names  in 
Babylonian  cuneiform  records.  They  are  Babylonian  lieroic  songs, 
which  describe  the  wars  of  independence  against  Elam.  Fr. 
Hommel  in  particular  has,  in  his  Ancient  Hebreir  Tradition,  given 
much  attention  to  it^  and  has  also  presented  for  the  first  time  a 
translation  of  part  of  the  texts  discovered  by  Pinches.  But  the 
joy  in  the  discovery  was  soon  silenced.  There  came  a  doubt  about 
the  identity  of  the  names.  Proper  names  have  always  been  the 
crux  of  Assyriology.  They  are  mostly  written  in  ideograms  bear- 
ing  several  meanings.  The  uncertainty  of  their  reading  has, 
besides,  roused  in  many  minds  the  wholly  unjustifiable  suspicion 
that  the  decii)hering  of  the  rest  of  the  text  also  is  unreliable. 
That  Amraph(el)  and  Hammurabi  -  are  equivalent  seems  to  us 
certain,  and  the  identity  of  Ellasar  with  Larsa^  the  riiins  of  which 
lie  hidden  under  the  mound  of  Senkereh,  south-east  of  Uruk 
(Erech),  and  probably  the  identification  of  the  Biblical  Arioch 
with  Rim-Sin  or  Arad-Sin,  whose  name  in  "  Sumerian  "  is  written 
Eri-Aku  ;  see  p.  321,  i. 

The  leader  is  Chedorlaomer.  This  name  is  pure  Elamite. 
It  signifies  servant  (?)  of  the  Elamite  goddess  Lagamar,  of 
whom  there  are  also  earlier  traces. 

A  supposed  discovery  by  P.  Scheil,  who  thought  he  had 
found    the  name  again  in  cuneiform,  in  one  of   the   letters  of 

'  (iunkel  says  :  "  What  can  we  think  of  a  chronicler  who  records  such  things," 
and  quotes  Noeldeke  :  "If  that  is  ixissible,  then  everylhing  is  possible."  See 
Winckler.  Hammurabi,  p.  xxxi.  n.  2. 

-  See  p.  23,  n.  I . 


THE   CAMPAIGN   OF   ABRAHAM  25 

Hammarabi,  in  the  form  Kudur-Nuhgamar,  led  Hommel  astray 
into  taking  this  name  as  equivalent  to  Chedorlaomer.  The 
reading  has  been  proved  to  be  erroneous  by  more  accurate 
study  of  the  letter  in  Constantinople,  and  with  the  readino- 
some  of  Hommers  deductions  also  fall.^ 

But  even  if  the  nanies  were  identical  with  those  of  the 
heroes  of  the  above-mentioned  Babylonian  epic  of  the  Elamite 
war,  it  would  be  of  no  help  to  those  who  try  to  prove  the 
authenticity  of  Gen.  xiv.  upon  such  grounds,  because  the 
poems  are  only  known  to  us  in  the  transcripts  of  the  age  of 
the  Achsemenidse.  From  the  time  of  Nabonidus  they  loved 
bringing  out  the  Ancient-Babylonian  names  and  praising 
Ancient-Babylonian  heroes.  Now,  since  it  was  the  Jews  in 
exile  and  after  the  exile  who  were  witnesses  of  this  Babylonian 
antiquarianism,  it  was  not  an  unlikely  thing  to  reverse  it, 
and  to  say :  Gen.  xiv.  is  a  poeni  with  a  purpose,  which 
brings  the  ideal  character  of  one  Abraham  into  connection 
with  the  greatest  number  possible  of  ancient  names  ;  the  story 
is  the  work  "  of  a  Jew  working  with  archives  of  Babylonian 
Palestine  and  of  the  Temple.""^ 

That  a  literary  criticism  of  this  kind  is  untenable  will  be 
allowed  by  everyone  who  has  begun  to  look  at  the  üld 
Testament  in  the  light  of  the  ancient  East.  The  Biblical 
writers,  whose  works  are  edited  in  our  Bible,  were  at  least 
quite  as  well  able  to  draw  from  Babylonian  tradition  in  the 
time  of  the  kings  as  in  the  post-exilic  period.  Facts  of 
history  and  the  knowledge  of  historical  personalities  lie  at 
the  root  of  Gen.  xiv.  Those  transcripts  from  the  age  of  the 
Achsemenidag  show  how  vivid  the  remembrance  was  in  the 
Near  East  of  events  in  Ancient-Babylonia.  And  the  Israelites 
were  at  all  times  well  informed  of  current  events  in  the  srreat 
empires  of  the  World.     We  find  this  illustrated  in  the  time  of 

^  Erbt,  Ebi'äer,  p.  67,  suggesls,  and  Hommel  had  already  conjectured  {Gesch. 
Bab.  IC.  Ass.,  366),  an  identification  of  Kedorla'omer  with  Kudurmabuk  (founded 
on  a  wrong  reading  of  the  cuneiform  original),  father  of  Rim-Sin,  ad-da  of  Emut- 
baba,  who  allowed  his  son  to  reign  in  Larsa. 

-  The  explanation  as  a  "Midrash"  (by  Kautzsch  amongst  others)  does  not  at 
all  fit  the  peculiarity  of  the  tale,  even  if  we  allow  that  a  "  Midrash"  need  not  be 
an  entirely  made-up  story. 


26  ABRAHAM   AS   CANAANITE 

the  kings.  It  is  only  a  question  as  to  whether  the  appearance 
of  Abraham  is  Historie,  or  whether  the  stories  of  the  victory 
over  the  four  kings  have  simply  been  foisted  upon  him.  For 
those  who  abolish  the  existence  of  Abraham  the  question  is 
settled.  But  the  stories  contain  very  weighty  material  for 
the  defence  of  the  personahty  of  Abraham.  He  was  also 
looked  upon  as  a  commander-in-chief  (see  pp.  5  f).  The 
appearance  of  the  "  Hebrew "'  Abraham  entirely  corresponds 
to  the  circumstances  of  that  age,  as  shown  iis,  for  instance, 
in  the  Sinuhe  stories.  The  reason  of  his  appearance,  not 
taking  into  account  the  circumstances  of  the  relationship  with 
Lot,  was  that  the  campaign  threatened  a  part  of  his  people 
with  deportation  (Gen.  xiv.  12),  so  that  the  rehgious  movement 
was  endangered. 

Gen.  xiv.  8  :  "  Four  kings  against  five.''  Five  is  the  number 
of  the  Dragon  combat,  and  is  for  that  reason  specially 
emphasised :  see  pp.  78,  i.,  93,  i.,  42,  n.  1.  Five  kings  assemble 
in  the  Vale  of  Siddim,  that  is,  in  the  Vale  of  Demons  (.shedim) ; 
bv  this  mythic  geographica!  name  they  are  denoted  as  Powers 
of  the  Underworld. 

Gen.  xiv.  10  f . :  The  kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  feil 
into  pits  (m^l,  hör)  in  the  vale  of  demons.  The  later 
tradition  has,  with  the  fate  of  Sodom  and  the  character  of  the 
neishbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  in  mind,  made  bitumen  pits 
(lon  m«a)  of  it. 

Gen.  xiv.  Vo  ff.  :  Abram,  the  Hebrew  (!)  comes  to  the  rescue. 
Abram  dwelt  in  Shechem  by  the  Tree  of  the  World 
Moreh,^  see  p.  14  (Gen.  xiii.  18:  Mamre  in  Hebron  trans- 
ports  the  scene  of  the  story  to  the  south ;  see  p.  14), 
with  three  confederates.-     To   rescue  Lot  Abram  "  counted "  ^ 


'  Gen.  xü.  6  ;  comp.  Deut.  xi.  29  f.,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gerizim  and 
Ebal. 

^  Mamre,  'Eshkol  and  'Anet  ('Enak?).  In  basale  beruh  lies  an  echo  of  the 
Ba^alberith  in  Shechem,  Judges  viii.  33  ;  ix.  4  (place  of  woiship  upon  Gerizim  or 
Ebal).  Isaac  also  allies  himself  with  three  men  by  an  oath  {bcrith) :  Abimelech, 
Ahuzzath,  and  Phicol,  Gen.  xxvi.  ff.  He  entertains  ihem  as  Abraham  did  the  three 
men  who  visited  him  (Gen.  xviii.  2  ff.),  and  then  is  granted  the  fulfilment  of  a 
wish  :  his  people  find  water. 

^  For  the  vananls  see  Kittel,  Bibiia  ;  Sept.  i)plefj.i]<Ti. 


THE   CAMPAIGN   OF   ABRAHAM 


"  his   318    hanikivi^^  born    in    his    house,    and    pursued    as    far 
as  Dan.'" 

"Then  he  divided  himself  over  them  (against  them)  by  night, 
Vie  and  his  servants,  and  smote  them." 

The  division  into  three  parts  belongs  to  the  motifs  of  the 
moon-combat,-  and  corresponds  to  the  three  watches  ofthe  moon, 
for  which  reason  the  night  watches 
are  strikingly  emphasised.  We 
find  the  same  thing  in  the 
fights,  endowed  with  moon-com- 
bat  motifs,  of  -Jacob  against 
Laban,  Gen.  xxxiii.,  and  of 
Gideon  against  the  Midianites, 
Judges  vii.  16  ;  of  Saul  against 
the  Amonites,  1  Sani,  xi,  11  ; 
and  in  the  battles  at  Gibeah 
and  Michmash.^ 

Gen.  xiv.  18:  ''And  Malki- 
r:edeh\  hing  of  Salem ^  hrought 
forth  hread  and  icinc  ,•  he  icas 
a  priest  of  the  El-'-elyon. 

Salem,  at  least  in  the  later 
conception  (comp.  Ps.  Ixxvi.  3), 
was  the  poetic  namefor  Jerusalem ; 
comp.  Joshua  x.   1  :  Adonizedek, 


king  of  Yerushalem. 


Fig.  121. — Letter  of  Abdihiba  fror 
Jerusalem  to  Amenophis  IV. 


In  the  Amarna  Letters  we  meet 
with  many  letters  from  Urusalim  (see  fig.  121)  which  correspond 

1  Only  used  in  this  passage.  It  is  an  astral  motif  vvord  which  must  belong  to 
the  myth  of  the  rescue  of  the  sun  from  the  Underworld  (Lot)  by  the  moon  :  the 
318  nights  when  the  moon  is  vibible  help  in  the  combat  of  the  moon  against  the 
powers  of  the  Southland  (sun).  We  may  remember  the  sun  character  of  Hanok 
(Enoch),  who  was  365  years  old,  and  the  \anuka  festival  of  the  solstice  ;  see  p.  239, 
i.,  n.  8,  and  Winckler,  Kr  it.  Sehr.,  iv.  64,  and  F.,  iii.  407.  The  hantkiin  was  a 
consecrated  band  from  amongst  the  Shechem  allies,  like  the  chosen  youths  in 
Judges  vii.  i  ff.  ;  see  Erbt,  Ebräer,  pp.  76  f. 

-  Winckler,  loc.  cit.,  407.  The  division  belongs  to  the  "night  watches"; 
Kautzsch,  Gunkel,  and  others  translate  this  inaccurately. 

3  See  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  Ixxxviii.  139,  157.  Also  in  Job  i.  17  we  find  the 
stratagem  ;  it  seems  to  have  become  a  standing  motif  in  stories  of  battles. 


28  ABRAHAM   AS   CANAANITE 

to  the  Hebraic  Yerüshalem.^  The  meaning  as  "City  of  Peace'" 
is  later  populär  etymology.  The  king  and  governor  Abdihiba 
of  Urusalini  says  of  himself : 

Behold,  what  concerns  me  (what  concerns  the  region  of  this 
city  Uriisalim),  not  my  father,  not  my  mother  established  me  (gave 
it  me),  bat  the  arm  of  the  mighty  king  allowed  me  to  enter  into 
the  house  of  my  forefathers  (has  given  it  to  me).  K.B.,  v.  102, 
9  ff.,  103,  25  ff.  ;  See  Hommel,  Ancient  Hebreiv  Tradition,  155. 

The  expression  "  not  my  father,  not  my  mother,  but  the  divine 
call  to  the  throne  may  I  glory  in,"  belongs  to  the  mythological 
necessity  of  the  call  lo  the  king.  It  is  the  motif  of  the  mysteni  of 
secrei  hirth ;  see  for  detail  upon  this,  pp.  90  ff.,  ander  "  Birth  of 
Moses."  The  king  represents  himself  thus  as  the  bringer  of  a  new 
age,  as  a  deliverer. 

A  nuniber  of  examples  are  given  in  B.X.T.,  pp.  29  f.;  others 
will  be  addueed  under  Exod.  ii.  2.  According  to  Deut,  xxxiii. 
9  ff.  (see  upon  this  passage  pp.  59  and  91)  Moses  was  endowed 
with  the  same  motif:  "  VV'ho  says  of  bis  father,  and  to  bis  mother  : 
I  have  not  seen  them  [and  who  does  not  acknowledge  bis  brother 
and  who  does  not  know  bis  son]."  "  It  is  the  same  when  Gudea  says 
to  the  Queen  of  Heaven  :  "  I  have  no  mother,  tliou  art  my  mother  ; 
I  have  no  father,  thou  art  my  father.  " 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  applies  the  same  motif  to  Melchizedek, 
King  of  Salem,  Heb.  vii.  3  :  Melchizedek  was  aTraTwp,  a/jLijToyp, 
dyeveaXoyrjTos,  "  without  father,  without  mother,  without  genealogy." 

The  "  mighty  king  "  in  the  passage  mentioned  is,  in  the  first 
instance,  Amenophis  IV,  (Chuenaten),  a  religious  reformer, 
who  introduced  a  singular  form  of  .sun-worship  in  place  of  all 
other  Egvptian  cults,  and  built  as  sacred  place  for  this  cult, 
that  city  which  lies  under  the  ruins  of  Aniarna.  Whilst  other 
Pharaolis  were  content  to  compare  theniselves  with  the  Sun-god, 
Chuenaten  wished  to  be  exalted  as  incarnation  of  a  great  god. 
The  governors  of  Canaan  naturally  obediently  feil  in  with  the 
requisition.  They  assure  the  king  :  "  Behold,  the  king  has  laid 
his  name  upon  Jerusalem  for  ever,  therefore  can  he  never  forsake 
the  land  of  Jerusalem.''  But  behind  this  bending  before 
Pharaoh  there  was  certainly  hidden  a  loftier  insight,  which  may 

'  "  City  of  Shalem  "  ?  Shalem,  Assyrian  .Shulman,  is  ijossibly  a  designation  of 
Ninib.  The  Amarna  Letters  mention  adistiict  Bit-Ninib  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Urusalimmu  ;  see  Zimmern,  A*. .4.  T.,  ßrd  ed.,  475  f. 

'  The  brackelcd  sentence  is  possibly  the  gloss  of  an  editor  who  no  longer  knew 
the  motif  of  secret  birth. 


ABRAHAM    AND   MEI.CHIZEDEK  29 

be  at  least  related  to  the  religion  of  Al^raham.  Between 
Abraham's  religion  and  the  religion  of  the  priest-king  Mel- 
chizedek  there  exists  in  any  case  a  connection  of  religious 
histoi-y  lipon  which  the  last  word  has  not  yet  been  said.  The 
more  or  less  clearly  recognisable  worship  of  "  God  niost  High  " 
links  Abraham  the  Babylonian  with  the  pious  king  of  the 
Canaanites. 

The  connection  with  Jerusalem  belongs  to  a  later  Interpre- 
tation. The  scene  is  laid,  according  to  the  original  copy,  in 
Shechem  ;  see  p.  26.  The  priest  bringing  his  benediction  must 
come  to  meet  Abraham  out  of  Shechem  (comp.  Erbt,  Ebräer, 
pp.  74  ff.).  Salem  is  a  variant  of  Shechem.^  Gen.  xxxiii.  18 
is  an  evidence  of  this  :  "Jacob  came  to  Shalem,  the  city  of 
Shechem."  -  El-Elyon,  the  God  of  Melchizedek,  is  then  identical 
with  the  El-berit  worshipped  (upon  Ebal  or  Gerizim)  in  Shechem 
(thus  in  Judges  ix,  46  instead  of  Ba-al-bei-it  in  Gen.  ix.  4  ; 
comp.  p.  27). 

The  blessing  of  Melchizedek  runs  (Gen.  xiv.  19  f ) : 

"  Blessed  be  Abram  of  El-Elyon 
possessor  of  heaven  and  earth. 
And  blessed  be  El-Elyon 

who  hath  delivered  thine  enemies  into  thy  hand." 

It  recalls  the  blessings  in  the  cuneiform  writings ;  comp, 
p.  J06,  i. 

Gunkel,  Genesis,  26 1^  is  inclined  to  hold  Melchizedek  as  an 
historical  personage,  and  draws  some  far-veaching  conchisions  from 
it :  Jei-usaiem  was  probably  in  a  pre-Israelite  period  the  centre  of 
an  important  confederation  of  cities^  as  indeed  in  Joshua  x.  the 
king  of  Jerusalem  appeavs  to  be  chief  of  a  Canaanite  confederation  ; 
later  Judaism  joined  itself  on  to  this  tradition  much  as  if  the 
German  Kaiser  were  to  appear  as  successor  to  the  Roman  Caesars, 
and  Ps.  ex.  gives  evidence  of  the  great  value  laid  by  the  court 
tradition  at    Jerusalem    upon    the    king    of   Jerusalem    being    the 

^  See  now  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  441  (also  upon  the  following)  against  the  earlier 
opinion  in  li.A.  T.,  3rd  ed.,  424. 

-  The  old  translations  were  right  in  reading  it  so,  not  as  "safe. "  Gen.  xxxiv. 
21,  the  people  of  Jacob  were  received  in  Shechem  :  "  they  shall  be  skelertihii  with 
us"  ;  even  if  that  also  means  "  dwell  with  us  in  peace,"  still  the  motif  of  the  name 
is  purposely  woven  into  it. 


30  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

successor  of  Melchizedek.i  The  step  from  the  i-ecognition  of 
the  priest-king,  Melchizedek  of  Jerusalem^  as  an  historical  character, 
to  the  recognition  of  the  Hebrew  Abraham  of  Hebron,  as  historical, 
is  not  very  far. 

Gen.  xiv.  3,  8,  10  :  Insteacl  of  Wl'W,  s-iddhn,  it  should  be 
read  Shedim.-  We  may  compare  the  Rephaim  (properly 
speaking,  spirits  of  the  dead),  which  appear  as  a  mythical  tribe 
of  demons  ;  Deut.  ii.  11,  20  ;  Jndges  xii.  4,  etc. 

Gen.  xiv.  20 ;  jio  is  a  poetic  motif  word  for  "  give,"  as  in 
Hosea  xi.  8,  which  represents  the  füll  motif;  comp.  Eccles. 
iv.  9,  by  this  the  lexicographic  difficulty  is  explained.  In  the 
same  way  Gen.  xv.  1  should  read  "/  will  give  thee  thij  reicard'''' 
(not,  "  I  am  thv  shield '').''■  Besides  which,  Abraham  cloes  not 
give  to  Melchizedek,  but,  contrai'iwise,  Melchizedek  gives  the 
Temple  tax  {.safiikhi)  to   Abraham.'* 

Gen.  xiv.  21  ff.  :  The  Kino;  of  Sodom  '  wishes  to  crive  the  whole 
booty  to  Abraham,  who  will  only  accept  what  the  people  have 
taken  for  themselves  in  the  loot.''     Besides  this  he  will  accept 

'  We  inteipret  this  "  priesthood  after  the  order  of  Melchizedek  "  not  politically 
but  reh'giously.  The  large-hearted,  pviestly  poel  ("thou  art  a  priest  after  the 
Order  of  Melchizedek  ")  laid  great  value  upon  the  tradition  of  the  pions  priest-king 
of  the  Canaanites,  who  blessed  Abraham,  and  through  whom  all  heathen  people 
should  be  blessed  (Ps.  Ixxii.  17).  Erbt's  hypothesis  (Ebräer,  74  ff. )  is  very  note- 
worthy,  seeing  in  Ps.  ex.  a  liturgy  upon  Yahveh  and  Zion  composed  anew  at  the 
enthronement  of  the  priest-king  of  Shechem.  Upon  the  change  from  Shechem 
to  Jerusalem,  see  p.  29. 

-  So  already  said  by  Renan  ;  see  Deut,  xxxii.  17  ;  Ps.  cvi.  yj.  In  both  these 
last-named  passages  the  sacrifices  are  made  to  demons.  The  adoration  of  demons, 
guardian  divinities  of  the  house  or  temple  must  be  criticised  like  the  "  devil- 
worship"  round  about  the  Tigris  at  the  present  day,  Offerings  are  made  to  them 
to  avert  evil  ;  comp.  Lev.  xvii.  7.  It  has  not  been  proved  that  "sacrifice  to 
demons  in  Babylonia  was  only  made  in  so  far  as  it  deals  with  spirits  of  the  dead.'' 
The  word  is  of  Babylonian  origin.  Babylonian  demonology  differentiates  between 
an  evil  and  a  gracious  shedit.  Hitzig  and  Wellhausen  also  prefer  in  Hosea  xii.  12 
shedim  instead  of  D'TE';  and  Hoffmann  in  PJiöniz.  Inschriften^  p.  53,  reads  in 
Job  V.  21  j//(frf  instead  of  nl"  (see  Zimmern,  K.A.  T.,  ßrd  ed.,  p.  461). 

^  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  411, 

■*  The  text  is  corrupt  ;  see  Siever's  JMetrische  Studien,  273. 

*  According  to  v.  10  he  is  dead.     Two  versions  of  the  story  are  run  together. 

*  7Dn,  Assyrian  akalit  (Id.  fCu),  already  upon  the  vulture  stele  of  E-an-na-tum, 
Vorders.,\'\.  15  (Thureau  Dangin,  V.A.B.,'\.  13),  where  the  Patesi  of  Gish-hu  with 
his  people  by  command  of  his  god  "devours"  the  beloved  district  of  Ningirsu. 
That  the  Interpretation  as  "what  they  have  eaten  "  is  impossible,  Winckler  has 
shown  F.,  iii.  410  f.     The  meaning  "what  they  have  devoured  (comp.  Arabian 


FURTHER  GLOSSES  TO  HISTORY  OF  ABRAHAM     31 

nothing,  "  from  a  thread  to  the  sole  of  the  shoe."  This  is  one  of 
the  raotif  figures  of  speech,  signifying  the  whole  (milk  and 
honey,  vine  and  fig-tree,  upper  and  undei-,  el'ish  and  shapl'/sh,  in 
cosmic  sense  Upperworld  and  Underworld). 

Winckler  has  perceived  that  in  thread  and  shoe  latehet  there 
hes  the  same  antithesis  denoted  by  upper  and  under  in  the 
microcosmoSj  and  contained  in  every  microcosmos  which  reflects 
the  whole.  In  fairy  tales  we  know  the  Opposition  of  tailov  and 
cobbler,  where  the  tailor  is  al'.vays  good  and  the  cobbler  bad^ 
coiTesponding  to  moon  and  sun  in  Opposition^  Ovevworld  and 
Underworld  (see  p.  36^  i.,  the  Dioscuri  as  hostile  brothevs).  The 
tailor  corresponds  to  the  thread;,  the  cobbler  to  the  sole  of  the 
shoe.  Compare  the  Mohammedan  legend  Ibu  Hisham,  765,  where 
the  antithesis  is  still  better  shown  by  garment  and  sandal. 

Gen.  XV.  1  and  12  ff.  :  (Ecstasy),  see  p.  12  ;  under  Gen.  xv.  1 
(|30  not  shield),  see  p.  30. 

Gen.  XV.  2  f. :  The  text  is  corrupt. 

"  Lord  Yahveh,  what  canst  thou  give  me,  since  I  am  childless, 
and  the  son  of  Meshek  of  my  house  (ben-meshek  beti,  a  gloss 
playing  on  the  word,  adds  :  that  is,  a  dammeshek)}  Eliezer  (and 
Abram  said  :  To  me  thou  hast  given  no  descendants,  behold  a 
son  of  my  house)  -  will  be  my  heir.  Eliezer  may  ^  perhaps  be  thei'e- 
fore  taken  to  be  actually  musliMnu  (it  must  then  be  read  [j]pü?D) 
as  Winckler  takes  it,  that  is,  aceording  to  the  H.C.,  a  "  freed 
man,"'  a  degree  lower  than  Ishmael,  whose  position  will  be 
treated  p.  34,^  presumably  therefore  a  son  of   Abraham  by  a 

'a^a/)  of  the  plunder  "  is  in  our  opinion  preferable  to  "  have  stolen,"  in  spite  of 
the  tempting  motif.  Plunder  is  the  law  of  war,  not  theft.  Gen.  xxxi.  15  f  ,  akäl 
has  the  same  meaning:  Laban  "  devoured  "  the  tii-hatn  (see  p.  37)  paid  for  his 
daughters. 

^  The  glossator  plays  upon  the  connection  of  the  tradition  with  Damascus,  of 
which  he  was  aware  (see  p.  8)  as  was  aheady  conjectured  in  A.T.A.O.,  ist  ed., 
p.  184.  Add  to  this,  perhaps,  that  ben-7nesheq  and  dani-viesheq  should  be  looked 
upon  as  variants  of  a  play  upon  words  ;  as  <Jf;/  =  son,  so  aceording  to  II.  R.  36.  57 
at  bottom  also  dam  =  son  (II.  R.  36.  57  da-}nti  =  iiiarn,  to  which  Hommel  has 
drawn  our  attention). 

-  ben  beti,  the  fatal  mesheq  is  suppressed  in  the  duplicate. 

■*  The  writing  with  "q"is  not  absolutely  against  it,  yet  requires  careful 
consideration. 

■*  Comp.  Stucken,  As/ral/iiythen,  iij,  where  in  Isaac,  Ishmael,  and  Elieser  the 
three  ranks  are  recognised  (therefore  a  Semitic  Rigsmal)  and  now  Winckler,  F., 
iii.  412.  The  three  descendants  correspond  to  the  three  prophecies  of  posterity. 
There  is.  then,  an  analogy  in  the  three  visits  of  Heimdal,  with  result  of  a  birth  from 
each  ;  first  the  slave,  then  the  bondsman,  and  last  the  free-born  lord. 


32  ABRAHAM   AS   CANAANITE 

slave,  and  bovn  during  the  sojouni  of  the  people  of  Abraham 
in  Daniascus. 

Gen.  XV.  6:  ''^  Ahravi  believed,  and  God  counted  it  fo  hhn  for 
r'ighteoiisnessl'''  jQN  (dinen.  he'emhi)  and  sliedahak  are  terms 
expressing  expectation  of"  a  deliverer.  They  belong  to  Abraham 
as  prophet  of  the  new  age  (uabi.  Gen.  xx.  7 ;  see  pp.  90  f.)  and 
bringer  of  the  new  epoch.  The  Mohannnedan  rehgion  is  the 
religion  of  Abraham,  as  is  emphatically  shown  by  the  Koran, 
Sura  vi.  76  (see  p.  9,  n.  1).  Ibn  Hisham,  150,  names,  as  the 
three  duties  of  Mohannned  and  all  earlier  prophets,  that  he 
must  be  towards  Allah  :  umana  (in  Arabic  likewise  the  Cciusative 
case),  isaddiiqa  and  natsr. 

The  third  motif  hereafter  is  the  nzr  motif.  Winckler,  F.,  iii. 
412  f.,  comp.  Ex  or.  lux,  ii.  2,  p.  59,  thinks  that  this,  which  he 
takes  to  be  the  "  motif  of  deliverance/'  is  specially  Babylonian 
(Marduk  with  the  Kibla  to  the  east)  and  is  found  again  amongst 
the  Nozairians  and  amongst  the  Christians  (Xazarenes).  It  is 
missing  in  the  Old  Testament  religion,  because  Abraham  stood  in 
Opposition  to  Babylon;  comp.  p.  10.  This  is  not  the  place  to 
discuss  tlie  motifs  of  deliverance.  \Ve  will  only  remark  that,  in 
our  opinion,  the  nezer  motif  is  mach  more  the  motif  of  the  spring 
of  the  universe,  which  the  deliverer  brings  (Isa.  xi.  1  :  Dan.  xi.  7  ; 
Matt.  ii.  23;  comp.  B.N.T.  iö  ;  it  is  =  zemah),  and  that  we 
cannot  agree  with  Winckler's  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  absence 
of  this  motif  in  our  passage. 

Gen.  XV.  8-11.  The  symbols  of  the  conclusion  of  the  agree- 
ment  are  highly  interesting  :  a  three-year-old  cow,  a  three-year- 
old  goat,  a  three-year-old  ram,  a  turtle  dove  and  a  young 
pigeon  are  divided  into  halves,  and  the  halves  (the  birds  un- 
divided)  laid  over  against  each  other.  A  half  belongs  to  each 
of  the  parties  to  the  bargain.  The  form  of  the  agreement 
between  Yahveh  and  Abraham  is  one  used  when  the  two  sides 
were  men.^  In  any  case,  the  contractors  passed  between  the 
pieces,  as  it  is  said  the  fiery  appearances  did  (v.  17),  and  it  is 
described  in  Jer.  xxxiv.  18.  As  they  passed  the  words  of  the 
treaty  were  spoken.  There  came  birds  of  prey.  Abram  "  drove 
them  aimy"''?     Should   this   be    read,  with    Winckler,  as  TD-^I, 

1  What  the  tiivision  meant  is  not  clear.  We  have  cuneifonn  te.xts  wheie  the 
parts  of  the  body  of  the  sacrilicial  victim  mean  the  parts  of  the  body  of  the  con- 
tractors of  the  bargain  ;  see  pp.  49  f.  upon  Gen.  .\xii.  13. 


FURTHER  GLOSSES  TO  HISTORY  OF  ABRAHAM     33 

"  Ahrahcnn  saic  them,'''  and  the  birds  of  omen  be  thought  of,  as  in 
the  story  of  Roniulus,  where  the  oiie  who  first  saw  the  bivds 
was  the  one  to  whoni  good  fortune  would  come  ?  ^  In  the  night 
a  fierv  appearance  passed  between,  whilst  Abram  lay  in  a 
trance.  The  fiery  appearance  is  part  of  the  endowment  of  the 
summiis  deus^  (north  point  of  the  heaven  =  fire;  see  p.  31,  i.). 
Yahveh  at  Horeb  also  appeared  in  a  flame  of  fire ;  Exod.  iii.  4. 
At  the  sacrifice  of  Manoah  (Judges  xiii.  20),  the  angel  of 
Yahveh  ascended  in  the  flame  of  the  altar. 

Gen.  xvii.  Abimelech,  see  p.  20;  Gen.  xvii.  1,  see  pj).  12,  14. 

Gen.  xviii.  2  ;  comp,  xix  1  :  The  ceremoniovis  salutation  of 
laying  the  face  in  the  dust,  is  in  the  East  used  only  before 
divinity  and  before  royal  personages  ;  comp.  1  Sam.  xx.  21  ; 
xxiv.  9.     It  is  still  used  in  Arabian  ceremonials  of  prayer. 

In  the  Amarna  Letters  the  salutation  runs  :  •' Seven  times  I  fall 
lipon  my  back^  seven  times  I  fall  upon  my  belly."  We  may 
compare  with  this  Gen.  xxxiii.  3  :  Jacob  bows  himself  to  the 
earth  seven  times  before  Esau.  The  Oriental  of  to-day  ceremoni- 
ously  Salutes  by  touching  with  his  right  hand  first  the  earth,  then 
his  heartj  and  his  forehead. 

Gen.  xviii.  4:  Ahrahcnn  s  giiests  ....  taking  food.     The  verb, 

properly  speaking,  nieans  "  to  lean  against.''     It  does  not  say 

that  to  eat  they  "  reclined."''  ^     Gunkel  fomids  his  assumption 

upon    an  error  when    he  takes  it  that    it    is   a  custom  of  the 

Bedouins.      Reclining    upon    pillows    is   a   luxurious   habit    in 

palaces ;  comp.  Arnos  vi.  4.     There  is  evidence  from  the  most 

ancient    times    of  the    custom  of   sitting    upon    chairs    in    the 

civilised  lands ;    compare    the   ancient   seals,  for  example,  figs. 

37,  68,  70,  the  reliefs  from  Kouyunjik  in  Botta,  the  well-known 

picture  of  Assurbanipal  and  his  wife  in  the  vine  arbour,  where 

the  king  is  reclining  and  his  wife  sits. 

^>  Gen.  xviii.  12-15  :  Upon  this  motif  of  laughter,  see  Apj)endix. 
As  a  reward  for  the  entertainnient  of  the  celestial  visitors  the  host 
is  granted  a  wish  (coui])are  the  three  wishes  in  the  fairy  stories). 

^  Possibly  still  more  is  veiled  in  it.  Stucken,  Astraluiylhcn,  p.  4,  already 
recalled  that  an  ancient  divinity  of  Mecca  (Hobal,  identical  with  Abraham)  was 
the  "  bird-feeder"  :  7nut'i>n  al-tair  (Wellhausen,  Skizzen,  iii.  73,  recalls  in  regard 
to  it  our  passage,  Gen.  xv.  11). 

-  Comp.  Rev.  i.  xiv.  f. 

•'  The  Bedouins  sit  upon  their  heels  to  eat. 
VOL.    II.  3 


34  ABRAHAM   AS   CANAANITE 

VVe  have  already  noted  the  same  motif,  p.  26,  n.  2.  The  antithesis 
is  the  plague  as  punishment  for  violated  right  of  hospitahty,  comp. 
}).  4-0.  ;|c 

Legal  Cl^sto:ms  of  thk  Abraham  Pkriod 

Gen.  xvi.  1  ff'. :  Sarai,  because  .shc  has  no  children,  gives 
Abraham  her  handmaid  Hagar  as  "  concubine. "  This  same 
custom,  of  which  there  is  no  trace  to  be  found  in  later  Israel,  is 
repeated  in  Gen.  xxx.  1  ft".,  where  Rachel  gives  Jacob  her  maid 
Bilhah. 

In  the  Code  of  Hannnurabi,  who  according  to  Gen.  xiv.  1, 
p.  23,  appears  to  have  been  contemporary  of  the  "  Babylonian  " 
Abraham,  it  is  said  H.C.,  146  : 

When  a  man  takes  a  wife,  and  she  gives  a  maid  (as  wife)  to  her 
husband,  and  she  (the  maid)  bears  him  children,  then  if  this  maid 
makes  herseif  equal  to  her  mistress,  because  she  has  borne 
children  :  her  mistress  shall  not  seil  her  for  money,  she  shall  put 
the  slave's  mark  upon  her/  and  count  her  amongst  the  servants. 

This  exactly  corresponds  to  the  case  of  Abraham  with  Hagar. "^ 
Hasar  was  siven  as  wife  to  Abraham.^  As  soon  as  .she  had 
good  hope  of  a  child,  "  her  mistress  was  despised  in  her  eyes.'"' 
Sarai    spoke    to    Abraham,  Gen.  xvi.    5:    "  Yahveh    be  judge 

'  Abiittani  ishshakaiishi. 

"  The  following  deeds  of  contract  from  the  time  of  the  first  (Canaanite)  dynasty 
of  Babylon  serve  for  further  illuslration.  Bu.  91-5-9,  374  {Ciui.  Inscr.,  viii.),  it 
is  said  :  Bunini-abi  and  Bell  shunu  (his  wife!)  bought  Shamash-nur,  daughter  of 
Ibi-Sha-a-an,  from  Ibi-Sha  a-an  her  father,  as  wife  for  Bunini-abi,  as  maid  for 
Beli-shunu.  If  Shaniash-nur  should  say  to  Beli-shunu,  her  mistress:  "  Thou  art 
not  my  mistress,  then  she  shall  shave  her  and  seil  her  for  money,  etc.  By  the 
i'aws  of  HainiiiHj-abi."  Bu.  91-5-9,  2176  A.  [Clin.  Inscr.,  ii.)  refeis  to  the  same 
circumstances  :  "  Arad-Shamash  has  taken  Taram-Sagila  and  Iltani,  the  davighter 
(daughters)  of  Taram-Sagila  as  wife.  If  Taram-Sagila  should  say  to  Arad-Shamash, 
her  husband  :  Thou  art  not  my  husband,  then  shall  they  cast  her  forth  from  the 
....  If  Arad-Shamash  should  say  to  Taram-Sagila,  his  wife :  Thou  art  not  my 
wife,  ihen  she  shall  leave  the  house  and  household.  Iltani  shall  wash  the  feet  of 
Taram-Sagila  and  carry  her  in  her  chair  to  her  temple,  and  he  shall  sit  in  the 
shadow  of  Taram-Sagila,  and  enjoy  her  peace  (but)  not  open  her  seal."  See 
Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  58. 

'  According  to  a  Talmudic  tradition  (Feuchtwang,  Z.A.,  vi.  441),  Ilagar  was  a 
vho  ^.^^B',  a  maid  whose  labour  belonged  to  the  husband  as  usufruct.  Since 
inulügu  means  "  dower "  in  Assyrian,  the  Talmud  therefore  assumes  that  she  was 
given  to  Abraham  from  the  first.  Therefore  like  the  second  of  the  e.xamples  cited 
in  n.  3. 


LEGAL   CUSTOMS    OF  THE  ABRAHAM  PERIOD     35 

between  me  and  thee."  She  claimed  the  right  sanctioned  by 
Yahveh.  In  Babjlonia  the  plaintiff  would  have  called  upon 
Shaniash,  that  is  to  say,  upon  the  code  containing  the  laws  for 
"judging  disputed  points,"'  and  in  the  conclusion  of  which  it 
says  :  "  The  oppressed  party,  who  has  a  claini,  shall  come  before 
my  statue  as  king  of  justice,  and  niv  inscription  shall  justify 
bis  claim,  he  shall  have  his  rights  and  bis  heart  shall  be  glad." 

Sarai's  words,  "  Yahveh  be  judge,''  correspond  to  the  con- 
tinually  used  expression  inahcn-  iliw,  "  before  the  Divinitv,""  in 
the  H.C,  "Before  the  Divinity'"  legal  decisions  are  settled. 
Abraham  acknowledged  the  point  of  law.  He  allowed  the 
claim,  and  actually  again  in  the  sense  of  the  law  as  held  in  the 
H.C,  when  he  said,  Gen.  xvi.  6:  "Thy  maid  is  in  thy  power: 
deal  with  her  as  seems  good  to  thee."  Hagar  had,  therefore, 
forfeited  the  privileges  which  belonged  to  her  and  her  children 
through  her  ad  vancement  to  being  her  master^s  concubine 
(comp.  H.C,  146,  171),  and  her  mistress  could  treat  her  as  a 
slave.  Sarah  took  harsh  advantage  of  the  right ;  thereupon 
Hagar  fled  (Gen.  xvi.  6)} 

The  laws  of  Hammurabi  draw  a  sharp  distinction  between 
the  "  concubine,""  the  slave  who  might  be  given  to  the  man  for 
the  purpose  of  getting  children,  and  the  secondary  wife,  of  much 
higher  social  standing,  who  could  only  be  taken  by  the  man 
together  with  the  legitimate  wife,  if  he  had  not  already  accepted 
a  concubine. 

H.C,  144  :  When  a  man  takes  a  wife,  and  that  wife  (because  she 
has  no  children,  comp.  145)  gives  a  maid  to  her  husband,  and  this 
maid  has  children,  should  the  man,  however,  propose  taking 
(besides  the  inaid)  a  secondary  wife,  this  shall  not  be  allowed,  and 
he  shall  not  take  a  secondary  wife. 

H.C,  145  :  When  a  man  takes  a  wife,  and  she  bears  him  no 
children,  and  he  purposes  taking  a  secondary  wife,  he  may  take 
the  secondary  wife,  and  bring  her  into  his  hoiise  ;  this  secondary 
wife,  however,  shall  not  be  eqiial  to  his  first  MÜfe. 

^  Edm.  Jeremias  (student  of  law)  directs  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  appeal 
by  Sarah  to  the  law  presupposes  in  the  mind  of  the  chronicler  that  ihe  idea  of  the 
family  had  developed  from  the  social  ranks  amongst  the  people  of  Abraham.  We 
must  notice  too  that  in  this  presiipposed  Community  the  wife  had  a  separate  right. 
To  her  belongs  the  execution  of  the  judgment  ;  Gen.  xvi.  6,  as  in  If.C.,  146.  In 
this  lies  a  confirmation  of  oar  view  of  the  "  history  of  the  Patriarchs,"  p.  4. 


36  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

So  it  is  distinctlv  sfated  that  also  this  secondarv  wife  niay 
not  be  equal  uith  the  chief  wife.  ünly  heie  there  is  no  special 
punishnient  incurred  in  the  event  of  her  boasting  over  the  other 
in  pride  of  her  motherhood. 

The  story  in  Gen,  xxi.  9  fF.,  which  is  drawn  froni  another 
soLirce,  seems  to  say  that  Hagar  was  not  a  slave,  but  secondary 
wife.  It  says  nothing  about  any  claini  made  by  Sarah  or  any 
deo-radation  of  Hasar.  Abraham  sends  her  awav  to  end  the 
quarrel.  That  she  is  looked  upon  here  as  secondary  wife  is 
perhaps  shown  by  the  mention  of  the  rights  of  inheritance  of 
Hagar 's  son.  After  the  birth  of  her  own  son  Isaac,  Sarah 
becomes  jealous  of  Hagar's  son,  because  he  should  "be  heir  with 
her  son."^  The  secondary  wife,  however,  according  to  the  H.C.^ 
thoiigh  not  equal  to  the  chief  wife,  is  protected  by  the  laws  of 
marriage  in  regard  to  the  laws  of  Separation  and  property  ; " 
comp.  H.C.,  137,  from  which  it  niay  be  concluded  that  the 
secondary  wife  is  considered  as  a  free  woman.  From  this  it 
follows,  as  at  least  very  probable,  that  the  child  of  the  second 
wife  would  be  legitimate,  and  therefore  have  rights  of  inherit- 
ance. If,  notwithstanding,  we  take  it  that  Hagar,  according 
to  Gen.  xxi.  9  ff.  also,  is  represented  as  a  slave,  even  in  that 
case  the  .supposition  of  Sarai's  jealousy  fits  the  sense  of  the 
laws  of  Hammurabi.  Only  it  must  then  be  presupposed  that 
Abraham  had  said  to  Ishmael,  "Thou  art  niy  son,''  i.e.  that  he 
had  adopted  him. 

H.C.,  170:  When  ;i  man  has  had  chiklren  borne  to  him  by  liis 
wife,  and  by  liis  maid,  and  the  father  says,  during  liis  lit'etime,  to 
the  children  borne  to  him  by  his  maid,  "  My  chiklren "  (this 
betokens  tlie  legal  formula  for  adoption),''  and  includes  theni 
amongst  tlie  children  by  his  wife  ;  then  wlien  the  father  dies,  the 
children  of  the  wife  and  of  the  maid  shall  divide  their  father's 
l)ossessions  equally  between  tliem.  The  wife's  child  shall  divide 
it  and  shall  have  the  choice. 

'  Gen.  xxi.  9,  "because  he  was  a  scoffer"  has  beer»  interpolated  afterwards  by 
an  interpieter  who  did  not  understand  the  Situation,  see  Gunkel,  Genesis,  loc.  cit. 
pnsD,  "  to  jest,"  is  explained  in  Exod.  xxxii.  6  as  idolalry.  It  has  also  an 
obscene  meaning  besides. 

-  See  Kohler  and  Peiser,  De)-  Codex  Hainintirabi,  \>.  221. 

^  The  proper  formula  was  in  any  case  fuller  and  niore  cerenionious  ;  possiMy  in 
Ps.  ii.  7  there  is  again  an  echo  of  the  furmula  :  "  Thou  art  my  son,  this  day  have  l 
begotten  Ihet: "  ;  see  Köhler  and  Peiser,  loc.  cit.,  p.  123. 


LEGAL   CUSTOMS   OF   THE  ABRAHAM  PERIOD     37 

It  is  i-emarkable  that  here  there  should  be  chiklren  by  the  maid 
togethei-  with  chiklren  by  the  wife.  Perhaps  it  was  only  in  such 
case  that  adoption  was  necessary.  whereas  in  the  case  of  the  maid 
having  been  given  for  the  purpose  of  propagatio  by  the  childless 
wife,  the  füll  rights  of  the  son  of  the  maid  would  natuvally  follow 
from  the  purpose  of  the  institution  ;  this  would  explain  why  there 
is  no  mention  of  an  adoption  of  Ishmael.  The  maid  was  often 
included  in  the  sale  of  a  wife,  and  H.C.,  170,  probably  beavs 
reference  to  such  a  case. 

Gen.  xxix.  fF.  reports  that  Jacob,  during  the  lifetinie  of  bis 
wife,  married  her  sister  also.  In  later  law  (Lev.  xviii.  18)  this 
was  accounted  as  incest ;  comp.  p.  2.  We  know  from  the 
reports  upon  Ancient-Babylonian  civil  law  that  the  two  wives 
of  one  man  were  sometimes  called  ahätu,  "  sisters."'  I  therefore 
assumed  earlier  (A/F.J.O.,  2nd  German  ed.,  p.  358)  that  it 
was  dealing  with  a  similar  case  of  marriage  law  as  in  Gen.  xxix. 
Br.  Meissner  calls  to  my  attention  that  the  two  women  who  are 
called  ahätu  may  in  these  cases  also  stand  in  the  relationship 
of  mistress  and  maid.  A  poet  of  later  time  writing  legends 
would  certainly,  in  the  interests  of  the  authority  of  the  current 
law,  have  avoided  reverting  to  such  ancient  rules. 

At  contraction  of  a  marriage  the  bridegroom  paid  (besides 
the  other  presents)  the  price  of  a  woman  {mohar)  to  the  woman's 
father  (Gen.  xxxi.  15;  xxxiv.  12;  Exod.  xxii,  16;  Deut.  xxii. 
19),  which  in  the  case  of  Jacob  and  Laban  was  paid  in  Service. 
Gen.  xxiv.  53,  Eliezer  paid  such  a  marriage  portion  to  the 
brother  and  to  the  mother  of  Rebecca.  In  the  same  way  the 
H.C.  shows  a  price  for  a  woman  (tirJjätic)  which,  according  to 
H.C,  139,  amounts  to  a  mine  and  more,  and  this  even  together 
with  a  slieriktu  (present,  dowry  to  her  family ;  for  example, 
§  137),  but  which  may  also  be  omitted  ;  ^  finally,  the  nudumin, 
the  husband's  '•  Morgengabe,"  *  for  example,  H.C,  112a. 

We  add   to  these  two   cases  of  law,  which  may  be  taken  as 

weighty    evidence    for    the    authenticity    of  the    inUieu    of  the 

history  of  Abraham,  mention  of  other  legal  customs  which  are 

not  especially  Ancient-Babylonian  but  also  correspond  to  later, 

that  is  to  say,  inter-tribal  laws  upon  which,  however,  at  least 

partially,  an  interesting  light  is  thrown  by  the  H.C. 

^  See  Kohler  and  Peiser,  loc.  eil.,  p.  iiS.     Jacob  pays  to  Laban  .such  a  tiihätu 
(paid  in  labour)  ;  Gen.  xxxi.  15  f. 


38  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

Gen.  XX.  16 :  The  violation  of  a  married  woman  was  atoned 
for  by  a  fiiie  paid  to  the  husband  (Gen.  xx.  14);  upon  the 
"  covering  of  the  eyes"  (accentuation  of  the  veil ),  which  consists 
in  a  bridal  dowry  to  the  injured  woman,  see  p.  20,  n.  5. 

Gen.  xxiv.  4  :  The  father  chooses  a  bride  for  the  son.  Like- 
wise  in  Babylonia,  according  to  H.C.^  155  f.  :  ''  When  a  man 
betroths  a  niaid  {kallätu)  to  his  son."  In  the  H.C.,  the  bride  is 
bought  by  the  man;  comp.  Gen.  xxiv.  5]  ;  xxxi.  15  (Rachel 
and  Leah  :  •' Our  father  hath  sold  us").  H.C.,  159  ff.,  pre- 
supposes  that  the  maiden  as  bride  {kallat ;  but  this,  de  facto, 
has  the  same  meaning  as  wife)  will  remain  in  her  father's 
house,  and  that  the  son-in-law  may  live  there,  as  Jacob  did  with 
Laban  and  Moses  with  Jethro.^ 

The  marriage  portion  was  brought  to  the  father-in-law's 
house,  H.C.,  159-161  ;  it  was  thus  in  the  wooing  of  Rebecca, 
Gen.  xxiv.  10,  53. 

Gen.  xxxi.  32  pi-esupposes  a  theft  of  sacred  things,  punish- 
able  with  death  : 

H.C.,  6  :  2  If  a  nian  steals  the  projierty  of  God  (temple)  or  cuurt 
(k.ing),2  he  shall  be  killed 

Gen.  xxxi.  39  presupposes  that  the  hired  shepherd  was  re- 
quired  to  make  good  any  loss  to  the  herd  only  when  it  had 
occurred  by  his  neglect : 

H.C.,  267  :  If  the  shepherd  neglects  something,  and  n  loss  occurs 
to  the  lierd,  then  the  sliepherd  shall  replace  the  loss. 

The  Patuiauchs  as  Posskssors  of  Flocks  axd  Heuds 

The  Bedouin  theory  mentioned  at  p.  15  held  good  in  sup- 
port  of  the  idea  that  the  primitive  "Patriarchs"  appear  to  be 
shepherds  so  long  as  the  records  of  the  Ancient-East  were 
unknown.  It  was  not  taken  into  consideration  that  the  part  of 
the  Near  East  which   was  the  scene  of  the  story  was  in   those 

'  Winckler,  A.O.,  iv.  4-',  26.  The  peculiar  siluationsof  Jacob  and  Moses  are  not 
sufficient  cxplanation. 

-  Upon  this  and  the  follovving,  see  J.  Jeremias,  Moses  und  Hainnntrabi,  2nd 
ed.,p.  44. 

•'  Conipare  H.C.,  8,  and  compare  with  this  the  piotendecl  theft  by  Joseph's 
brother  from  the  Egyptian  couit  ;  Gen.  xliv.  9.  Upon  the  death  penalty  for  other 
serious  theft,  see  p.  iio. 


SODOM    AND   GOMORRHA  39 

days  in  a  much  higher  state  of  civihsation  than  it  is  now,  and 
that  the  Bedouins  also  of  those  days  were  in  close  intercourse 
with  the  great  civilisations.^  The  owners  of  Hocks  and  herds 
were  connected  with  the  rulers  of  the  lands,  as  is  illustrated  by 
the  story  of  Sinuhe.  They  were  princely  rulers,  who  hired  out 
their  flocks  and  their  shepherds,  and  ruled  over  their  properties. 
The  H.C.  presupposes  a  relation  between  owner  and  tenant, 
and  regulates  the  respective  duties  and  rights. 

Gen.  xviii.  22  fF.  :  ^'"Abraham  stood  hefore  GocV  The  pre- 
sentment  of  a  petitioner,  who  Stands  before  the  Divinity, 
also  fits  with  the  Babylonian  religion.  We  offen  find  it 
illustrated  on  seal  cylinders  ;  see  figs.  35  and  70.- 

Abraham  entertained  celestial  visitors,  then  he  might  express 
a  wish.^  He  prays  for  the  rescue  of  Sodom.  Abraham  speaks 
of  from  fifty  righteous  men  (zedeK\  one  who  has  fulfiUed  his 
duty  to  the  Divinity)  down  to  ten.  This  jnotif  of  hargaining 
is  found  also  in  the  Arabian  legend  as  an  intentional  counter- 
part  to  this  story  of  Abraham,  in  the  journey  of  Mohammed 
through  the  seven  heavens,  which  exactly  corresponds  to  the 
Ancient-Oriental  presentment  of  the  seven  stages  described  at 
p.  ]6,  i.  f  Allah  requires  fifty  prayers  from  Mohammed,  which, 
however,  are  lessened  to  five  upon  Abraham^s  intercession. 

SoDOM   AND    Go.MORRHA    AND    THE    FlRÜ-FLOOD 

The  whole  storv  of  the  judgment  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha,  as 
we  have  it,  presents  the  motifs  of  the  fire-flood.  Like  the 
Deluge,  the  fire-flood  intimates  a  return  to  original  conditions. 
Therefore  in  Gen.  xix.  31  the  whole  race  of  mankind  is  assumed 
to  be  annihilated,  except  Lot  and  his  daughters.     With  the 

^  See  upon  the  foUowing,  Winckler,  Allor.  Geschichlsanffassung,  i6  ff.  {Ex  or. 
lux,  ii.  2). 

-  In  Interviews  with  theking,  the  "  minister  "  is  the  intercessor  (nazäzit  i>iapdni, 
"stand  before,"  is  the  technical  expression).  The  king  was  not  addressed  person- 
ally.  For  this  reason  the  king  praying  is  accompanied  by  a  priest  who  takes  him 
by  the  hand  {sabit  käf). 

3  His  first  wish  is  for  the  birth  of  a  child  (comp.  p.  33).  We  would  expect  to 
find  three  wishes.  Compare  with  this  and  the  following,  Winckler,  /)/.  V.A.G., 
1901,  353  ff- 


40  ABRAHAM    AS   CANAANITE 

fire-flood  begins  a  new  world.^  Biblical  history  eiidows  the 
storv  of  the  destruction  of  Sodom  with  the  motifs  of  the  fire- 
flood  in  Order  to  indicate  the  inausuration  of  a  new  afire — the 
Canaanite  period.-  The  historian  avails  himself  of  the  ages  of 
the  universe  motifs.  The  district  where  the  scene  is  laid  is  a 
universe  in  miniature.  The  source  of  the  material  appears  to 
be  from  an  Ammorite  Moabite  primitive  story  about  Paradise, 
the  Fall,  and  the  Deluge  (fire-flood).  Gen.  xviii.  25  ff.,  in 
addition,  shows  that  Jewish  historians  took  this  view,  looking 
upon  the  fire-flood  of  Sodom  in  particular  as  the  antithesis  to 
the  Deluge,  and  as  a  tragedy  of  the  universe.  The  cause  of  the 
flood  is  violation  of  the  rights  of  hospitalitv. 

Judges  19  f.  is  a  counterpart  to  the  fierv  judgment  upon 
Sodom  and  Gomorrha.^  In  Gibeah  the  rights  of  hospitalitv 
were  violated  in  the  same  way  as  in  Sodom  and  Gomorrha. 
Violence  is  done  to  the  guests  (comp.  Gen.  xix.  8  f.  with  Judges 
xix.  23  f. ;  certain  fornis  of  expression  are  exactly  the  same). 
The  punishment  for  the  violated  guest-rights  was  the  destruc- 
tion by  fire  of  the  city  of  Benjamin  ;  Judges  xx.  40,  48.  Only 
six  hundred  men  save  themselves  on  the  rock  of  Rimmon  (1), 
like  Lot  with  his  people  upon  a  mountain  ;   Gen.  xix.  17. 

A  Buddhist  story  shows  the  same  motifs  :  ■* — 

The  Buddliist  pilgrim  Hiouen  Thsangfrom  China  (seventh  Century 
A.D.)  teils  of  a  city  Halaolokia  which  was  rieh,  biit  heretical.  Once 
when  an  Arhat  came  to  the  city  they  gave  him  no  food,  but 
pelted  him  with  eavth  and  sand.  Only  one  man  took  pitv  upon 
him  and  gave  him  food.  Then  the  Arhat  said  to  him  :"  Save 
thyself ;  in  seven  days  there  will  fall  a  rain  of  earth  and  sand  and 
will  smother  the  city,  not  one  man  shall  escape — and  only  because 
they  have  pelted  me  with  earth."  The  man  went  into  the  city, 
and  told  his  relations,  but  no  one  Avould  helieve  it,  and  they 
mocked  at  it.  But  the  tempest  came,  the  city  feil,  and  only  the 
man  rescued  himself  by  an  undergound  passage. 

'  Comp.  pp.  70,  i.  f.,  268,  !.,  270,  i.  In  the  Jalkiit  Rubeni  the  tower  was  to 
Protect  from  the  fire-flood  (cn  ha  'jus).  Upon  the  fire-flood  of  Sodom,  compare 
also  Jastrow,  AW.  of  Bab.,  507,  and  Z.A.,  xiii.  288  ff.  The  bunung  of  Troy  also 
has  the  motifs  of  the  fire-flood,  as  the  embellishing  myths  show. 

-  Comp.  Erbt,  Ebräer,  p.  70. 

'^  Compare  also  the  fire-flood  which  falls  upon  Babylon  ;  Rev.  .wiii.  8,  iS  ;  xix.  3. 
P.  Cassel,  Mischte  Sindbad,  p.  i,  noled  the  echo  of  the  Lot  story  (quoted 
according  to  Stucken,  Astralmythen,  115). 


SODOM    AND   GOMORRHA  41 

The  Phrjgian  fable  of  Philemon  and  Baucis  (Ovicl,  Met.^  vi. 
616  ff.)  deals  witli  a  deluge.  Zeus  and  Hermes  find  no  hospi- 
tality.  The  iwo  old  people  take  them  in.  For  punishment 
comes  a  deInge,  from  which  the  two  are  rescned.  There  the 
apotheosis  ^  consists  in  (a)  their  house  is  changed  into  a  Temple 
in  which  they  rule  as  priests,  (b)  that  at  the  end  of  their  lives 
they  are  changed  into  trees  (Philemon  into  an  oak,  Baucis  into 
a  lime  tree). 

The  following  motifs  are  to  be  noted  in  the  story  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrha. 

1.  Destruction  falls  upon  Sodom  and  Gomorrha^  which  once 
resembled  Paradise  (Gen.  xiii.  10^  "  like  a  garden  of  God,"  see  p. 
206,  i.  ;  "like  the  land  of  Egypt "  is  a  gloss),  because  of  the 
wickedness  of  men. 

2.  One  righteous  man  with  his  family  is  rescued. 

3.  As  place  of  refuge  a  mountain  is  indicated^  Gen.  xix.  17  ;  that 
is  to  say^  the  city  of  Zoar.- 

4.  Those  selected  for  rescue  are  mocked ;  Gen.  xix.  li. 

5.  It  is  represented  to  the  divine  judge  that  only  the  wickcd 
should  be  overwhelmed  by  the  judgment;  Gen.  xviii.  25. 

6.  The  new  epoch  and  the  new  generation  are  begun  by  the 
action  of  Lot's  daughters  and  by  Lot's  drmikenness.^ 

Instead  of  the  fire-fiood,  sometimes  a  rain  of  stones  appears, 
which  one  must  take  to  be  fiery  stones;  comp.  Rev.  xvi.  21. 
This  is  also  motif  of  re-creation  of  the  world,  and  is  in  fact  in 
the  Summer  solstice  of  the  universe.  It  is  at  the  time  of  the 
solstice  that  meteors  fall.  We  find  such  a  rain  of  stones  falling 
from  heaven,  as  an  event  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch,  in 
Joshua  X.  11,  after  the  defeat  of  Adoni-zedek  of  Jerusalem  by 

'  Compare  the  apotheosis  of  the  Babylonian  Noah  and  his  wife,  pp.  240,  i. ,  246,  i. , 
252,  i.  Stucken,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  reference  to  the  analogy,, 
incorrectly  thinks  of  Lot's  wife  in  connection  with  the  transformation  into  trees. 

-  Gunkel  has,  in  reference  to  this  and  otherwise,  pointed  out  the  wealth  of 
play  upon  words  which  belongs  to  the  art  of  Oriental  story-telhng.  More  im- 
portant,  however,  is  the  recognition  of  their  mylhological  meaning,  as  indicated 
by  Stucken  and  Winckler.  A  dictionary  of  motifs  is  much  to  be  desired  for 
the  future. 

^  Travesties  :  i.  The  new  generation  travestied  as  in  Ham's  conduct  in  the 
Deluge  Story  ;  see  p.  272,  i. ,  n.  3,  and  comp.  B.N.  T.,  120.  Compare  with  this  the 
Nyctimene  with  her  drunken  father  Nycteus  ;  Ovid,  Me(.,\\.  589  ff.,  and  Myth. 
Vai.,  ii.  39.  2.  The  vine  as  symbol  of  the  new  age  by  the  intoxication  of  Lot 
(comp.  Noah,  p.  272,  i.).  3.  Drunkenness  as  motif  of  the  new  year  (compare  the 
epic  Enuma  ehsh  and  the  conduct  of  the  gods  at  the  renewal  of  the  world). 


42  ABRAHAM   AS   CANAANITE 

Joshua.  Accordino;  to  the  coherence  it  is  treatincr  of  the 
defeat  of  the  "  five  kings,"  who  represent  the  conibined  inimical 
power  of  Canaan,  in  the  sanie  way  as  does  the  Dragon  of 
Winter,  and  as  formerly  Egypt,  appearing  as  the  defeated 
Dragon.^  The  five  kings  creep  into  the  cave  ("  and  they  are 
there  unto  this  day, "  Joshua  x.  27).- 

In  the  campaign  of  Abraham  against  Mecca  (Ihn  Hisham) 
there  conies,  in  the  same  way,  a  rain  of  stones  to  his  help. 
Mighty  birds  bring  stones  in  their  beaks  and  their  claws  and 
kill  the  eneniy. 

Fire  and  brinistone  as  a  means  of  destruction  has  become  a 
stereotyped  figure  of  speech  ;  comp.  Job  xviii.  5  :  brimstone  is  to 
fall  upon  his  dwelling  ;  Ps.  xi.  6  :  "  fire  and  brimstone  " ;  comp, 
further,  Luke  ix.  54,  Rev.  xx.  9.  The  destruction  of  a  district 
with  Salt  (brimstone  ?)  agrees  equally  with  the  motif.  In 
Judices  ix.  45  the  custom  is  found.  Likewise  on  the  Assvrian 
inscriptions  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  strewed  salt  over  l^anusa,  and 
Assurbanipal  over  Susa.^  Unfruitful  land  is  called  meleha  (salt 
land),  Job  xxxix.  6 ;  Ps.  cvii.  34  ;  Jer.  xvii,  6. 

The  Details  of  the  Stories  of  the  Patria hchs  axd 
THE  Scheme  of  the  Twelve  Tribes 

The  story  of  the  Patriarchs  is  in  the  form  of  the  history  of  a 
faniily,  from  which  the  twelve  tribes  are  descended,  who  then 
became  known  as  the  "  Children  of  Israel."'  The  aim  of  the 
tradition  in  this  is  to  indicate  that  the  people  of  Israel  show  an 
unbroken  course  of  development.  The  historians  found  in  the 
traditions  of  certain  places  clear  landmarks  showing  the  coher- 
ence of  the  ancient  stories.     Later,  the  descent  from  one  fore- 

^  Motif  of  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrants.  Winter,  which  is  driven  away,  appears 
in  the  calendar  myth  as  concentrated  in  the  iive  additional  days  at  the  end  of  the 
year  (before  the  beginning  of  spring),  or  as  a  giant  (fall  of  Orion)  who  is 
conquered,  or  as  a  water  dragon.  When  the  mutif  is  applied  to  historical  events, 
the  cnemy  appears  as  five  in  number,  or  embodied  as  a  giant,  who  then  takes  the 
number  five,  or  five  and  a  half  (see  the  sons  of  Goliath).     Comp.  p.  93,  i. 

-  A  variant  upon  this  is  the  myth  of  tlie  seven  sleepers,  The  seven  sleepers, 
who  enter  the  cave  in  the  time  of  Decius,  wake  to  the  new  agc. 

^  Tigl.  Pil.  Fr.,  vi.  14  (see  Hommel,  G.G,G.,  602,  n.  i)  ;  Assttrb.  Pr.,  vi. 
79  (salt  and  shijjlu  herb). 


THE   TWELVE   TRIBES  43 

father  took  the  fonu  of  a  religious  dogma :  *'  When  he  was  but 
one,  I  called  him,''  Isa.  li.  2  — a  fatal  dogma,  leading  to  a  particu- 
larism,  which  was  energetically  combated  in  the  preaching  both 
of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus. '^ 

The  family  history  is  certainly  not  pure  invention.  The 
tradition  was  probably  quite  correct  in  looking  upon  Isaac  and 
Jacob-Israel  as  the  most  prominent  wandering  sheikhs  of  the 
primitive  epoch,  who  could  be  held  to  be  legitimate  descendants 
of  Abraham.  But  this  family  history  has  become  the  founda- 
tion  scheme  for  the  ancient  history  of  Israel,  and  it  certainly 
does  just  extend  over  the  215  years  of  the  patriarchal  period."- 
Jacob  was  also  certainly  an  historical  personage,  a  religious 
leader  of  past  ages.^ 

"  Shaddai  hath  made  of  the  strong  (that  is  to  say,  bull)  Jacob 
a  shepherd  for  the  foundation  stone  of  Israel"  (Gen.  xlix.  23  f.).^ 
He  apparently  also  had  about  twelve  sons,^  whose  destiny 
brought  them  for  the  most  part  into  Egypt,  with  the  neighbour- 
ing  Arabian  districts  of  which  country  they  had  long  had  active 
business  relations. 

Isolated  records  and  genealogies  of  later  times  are  for  the 
pm-pose  of  identifying  certain  tribes,  or  social  corporations  of 
the  Community/'  with  the  ancient  families  (Gen.  xxx.,  xxxv.  25  ff. ; 

1  Already  Isa.  li.  i,  "  Abraham,  the  rock  whence  ye  were  hewn,"  emphasises  the 
reiigiouss\äe  ;  likewise  Ezek.  xvi.  33,  comp,  xxxiii.  24.  Isa.  Ixiii.  16  is  also  to  be 
undeistood  so.  Neither  here  nor  anywhere  eise  (Duhm  upon  Jev.  xxxi.  15)  is 
there  any  trace  of  a  "  cult  of  Abraham." 

-  Klostermann,  p.  iS. 

-  There  is  more  difficulty  about  Isaac.  His  life  is  filled  up  here  and  there  with 
shadowy  pictures  from  the  story  of  Abraham.  Gen.  xxvi.  i  ff.=xii.  ;  with  x.  ff. 
comp.  xxix.  2  ff.  ;  xxvi.  5  ff.  comp.  xxi.  25  ;  xxvi.  ff=xxi.  22  ff. 

^  We  read  thus  with  Klostermann,  p.  19  :  ccs-c  ("  in  that  he  placed  ")• 
5  The  number  twelve  does  not  agree  ;  out  of  regard  for  the  scheme  it  has  been 
made  to  fit -the  division  of  Joseph  into  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  is  clear  evidence 
of'this.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  tradition  according  to  which  Jacob  had  three 
children  (Simeon  and  Levi  who  avenge  their  injured  sister  Dinah).  In  itself  the 
number  twelve  might  also  be  historic.  History  builds  a  scheme  thus  :-the  German 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  has  six  sons  and  one  daughter ;  the  seven  planets  includmg  Venus. 
The  later  speculation  according  to  which  Jacob  had  seventy  sons  is  also  mterest- 
ing.  Midrash  Sehern.  Rabba  upon  Exod.  i.  7  says  :  "They  swarmed.  Many  say 
there  were  twelve  at  a  birth  ;  many  say  every  woman  bore  sixty  at  a  birth.  It 
would  be  no  marvel,  the  scorpion  bears  seventy." 
^  Klostermann.  p.  30. 


44  ABRAHAM    AS    CANAANITE 

Gen.  xlvi.  8-27)  whicli  lived  through  the  Exodus,  or  specially 
with  Dinah,^  or  with  the  fainily  of  Nahor  (Gen.  xxxv.  23  ft'.)- 
Each  one  of  the  "  twelve  tribes "" — which,  however,  speaking 
exactlv,  never  actually  existed  contemporaneously — had  one  of 
the  Patriarchs  given  as  "  forefather.'""  -  The  traditions  of  isolated 
clans  were  woveii  into  the  faniily  history  of  the  sons  of  Jacob. 

The  numbers  used  in  the  sclieme  are  those  of  the  astral  system, 
twelve  and  seventy,  seventy-two,  according  to  whether  it  is  hmav 
or  solar  system.  The  table,  Gen.  xvii.  20  ;  xlvi.  8-27,  is  constructed 
according  to  both  reckonings.  As  there  are  counted  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel,  so  according  to  Gen.  xxv.  13  ff.  there  were  twelve  tribes 
of  Ishmael ;  and  in  Gen.  xxv.  2  ff.,  according  to  the  original  text, 
there  were  twelve  sons  of  Abraham  and  Keturah.^  That  the  idea 
of  the  zodiac  lies  at  the  root  of  the  number  twelve  goes  Avithout 
saying  in  the  Ancient-East. 

It  is  abundantly  proved  by  Jacob's  blessing,  which  alliides  to  the 
zodiacal  signs  ;  see  pp.  77  ff.  Abulfaraj,  Hisf.  Di//i.,  101,  says  the 
Arabs  hold  themselves  to  be  descended  from  twelve  tribes,  and 
each  of  the  twelve  tribes  is  under  a  zodiacal  sign."* 

According  to  traces  found  in  the  Biblical  tradition,  we  may 
gather  the  following  historical  particulars  : — The  nucleus  of  the 
rehgious  community  grouping  itself  round  Abraham  settled  in 
South  Canaan,  in  Negeb,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Arabia 
Peti'aea,  and  from  thence  came  repeatedly  into  connection  with 
the  districts  which  were  under  the  rule  of  Egyptian  viceroys 
(Pharaohs).  The  southern  .Settlements  are  distinguished  in  the 
religion  of  later  times  by  the  (originally  seven)  wells  of  Jacob, 
and  by  the  sanctuaries  consecrated  by  Jacob  at  Mizpah,  Gilead, 
Penuel,  and  Mahanaim.  Then  this  community,  which  had 
gathered  together  under  the  influencc  of  a  rehgious  idea,  spread 

'  Gen.  xlvi.  15  ;  see  Klostermann,  p.  30. 

-  The  derivation  of  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  who  settled  in  the  country 
to  the  east  of  Jordan  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea,  likewise  of  the 
Edomites  and  Arabian  tribes  who  by  circumcision  and  other  elements  of  vvorship 
later  approached  the  family  of  Abraham,  rests,  like  the  genealogical  taliles,  upon 
"  scientific  investigation,"  not  upon  tradition. 

•'  Klostermann.  Gen.  x.  had  originally  probably  also  twelve  sons  of  Joktan 
(Hommel,  Ak/s.  tc,  Ad/i.,  316,  n.  6). 

■*  Jalkut  Rubeni,  171,  says  the  twelve  tribes  correspond  to  the  twelve  temples 
(that  is,  "  houses,"  p.  11)  of  the  zodiac.  Steinschneider  {Z.D.M.G  ,  iv.  (18S0), 
145  ff.  ;  xxvii.  (1903),  474  ff.)  has  collected  numerous  examples  of  the  system  of 
twelve  which  could  be  added  to  at  pleasure  ;  comp,  also  Krauss,  Z.A. '/'.  iV.,  xx. 
38  ff.  ;  Kampers,  Alex,  der  Grosse,  pp.  107  f.,  and  above,  pp.  67,  i.  ff. 


THE   TWELVE   TRIBES  45 

further  abroad.  A  large  part  of  it.  was  forced  towards  the 
Egyptian  frontier  by  famine.i  Here  also  tradition  links  itself 
on  to  a  marked  personality— that  of  Joseph.  Then  the  religious 
Community  received  a  new  and  mighty  impulse  through  Moses. 
It  moved  victorionsly  out  and  coüected  together  the  scattered 
parts  of  the  ancient  conununity. 

At  Sinai  the  Community  represented  by  Jethro,  which  was 
in  possession  of  the  ancient  place  of  worship,  united  itself  with 
theni ;  clans  came  from  the  frontier  districts  of  Negeb,  reminded 
of  their  religious  relationship  by  the  old  places  of  worship  and 
by  the  "  Hebrew ""  migration  from  Egypt.- 

We  have  shown  how  the  milieu  of  the  stories  of  the  Patriarchs 
agrees  in  every  detail  with  the  circumstances  of  Ancient-Oriental 
civilisation  of  the  period  in  c[uestion,  as  borne  witness  to  by  the 
monuments.  The  actual  existence  of  Abraham  is  not  histori- 
cally  proved  by  them.  It  might  be  objected:  it  is  included  in 
the  picture.  In  any  case,  it  must  be  allowed,  the  tradition  is 
ancient.  It  cannot  possibly  be  a  poem  with  a  purpose  of  later 
time.  In  view  of  the  situations  described,  we  might  say  the 
story  could  more  easily  have  been  composed  by  an  intellectual 
writer  of  the  twentieth  Century  after  Christ,  knowing  Oriental 
antiquity  by  means  of  the  excavations,  rather  than  by  a  con- 
temporary  of  Hezekiah,  who  would  have  used  the  civilisation  of 
his  own  time  in  descriptions,  and  certainly  would  not  have  any 
excavated  antiquities.  Wellhausen  worked  out  from  the  opinion 
that  the  stories  of  the  Patriarchs  are  historically  impossible. 
It  is  now  proved  that  they  are  possible.  If  Abraham  lived  at  all, 
it  could  only  have  been  in  surroundings  and  under  conditions 
such  as  the  Biblc  describes.  Historical  research  must  be 
content  with  this.  And  Wellhausen  may  be  reminded  of  his 
own  words  {Komposition  des  Htwateuch  346) :  "  If  it  (the  Israelite 
tradition)  were  only  possible,  it  would  be  follv  to  prefer  any 
other  possibility." 

^  The  Amarna  Letters  repeatedly  niention  such  events  ;  see  pp.  71  f.  and  74. 

-  Exod.  xxi.  I  and  i  Sam.  xiv.  21  speak  of  "  Hebrews"  who  also  after  the  con- 
quest  of  the  land  were  not  politically  connected  with  the  Children  of  Israel,  yet 
with  whom  the  Israelites  feil  themselves  to  be  related.  We  may  perhaps  recognise 
in  them  descendants  of  the  religious  Community  of  the  patriarchal  period. 


CHAFrER  XVI 

FLUITHER    GLOSSES    UPOX    THE    HISTOUIES    OF    THE    l'ATRIARCHS 

Gen.  xix.  37 :  The  Moabites.  This  tribe,  which  gradually 
developed  itself  into  a  nation  by  the  annexation  of  related 
eleiiients,  pressed,  like  the  Israelite  tribes,  conquering  into  the 
couutiy  east  of  Jordan.  According  to  the  Biblical  tradition 
the  ^Moabites  were  ah'eady  in  the  land  when  the  Israehtes 
settled  there,  and  friendly  relations  arose  between  Moab  and 
Israel  (Deut.  ii.  18  ff.).  Against  this,  in  the  pre-Israelite 
Canaanite  traditions  known  to  us,  they  are  not  mentioned,  also 
the  Situation  of  their  dwelling-place,  close  to  the  desert,  points 
to  the  probability  that  they  first  nioved  in  when  Israel  was 
already  in  possession  of  sonie  stronghold.^ 

Gen.  xix.  38  :  The  Anunonitcf,  in  cuneiform  writing  Anmianu,- 
were  a  tribe  on  the  boundary  of  the  Israelites,  only  partially 
living  in  the  desert  as  noniads,  recognised  for  the  most  part  in 
the  Bible  from  earliest  times  as  a  civilised  state  under  the 
governorship  of  a  king.     Their  chief  city,  Rabbah,^  lies  under  the 

'  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.^  i.  189  ff.,  therefore  assumes  that  a  reminiscence  of  the 
first  development  of  the  Moabite  power  presents  itself  in  Judges  iii.  15  ff.,  and 
that  the  Moabites  in  the  story  of  Balaam  (comp.  Numb.  xxii.  4,  wheie  it  says  "  chief 
of  the  Midianites")  aie  confused  wiih  the  Midianites  who  came  in  later.  See  2 
Kings  iii.  for  further  history  of  the  Moabites. 

-  The  cuneiform  vvritings  name,  under  Shahnaneser  II.,  Baesa  ben  Rehob,  the 
Ammonite  (niat  A-ma-na-ai),  with  a  thousand  people,  together  with  Ahab  of  Israel 
(with  ten  thousand  people),  amongst  the  vassals  of  Damascus,  who  were  defeated 
at  Qarqar  (A".  T.,  16).  Under  Sennacherib,  701,  Pudu-ilu  of  Amnion  (bit  Am- 
ma-na-ai)  pays  homage  and  Esarhaddon  names  the  same  Pudu-ilu  as  a  contempor- 
ary  of  Manasseh  amongst  the  vassals  who  were  forced  to  labour  with  basket  and 
hod  in  building  the  arsenal  at  Nineveh  (A'.  7'.,  44,  52).  Upon  forced  labour, 
comp.  p.  83,  and  fig.  127  f. 

•'  Rabbath  Amnion,  situated  on  the  upper  Jabbok,  the  present  Wadi  'Amman. 

46 


MOABITES— AMMONITES  47 

ruins  of  'Amman    of  to-day,  the   magnificent  ruins  of  which, 
however,  mostly  date  from  Roman  times.^ 

Saul  Avon  his  fame  in  the  wars  against  the  Ammonites  (l  Sam.  xi. ; 
comp.  xiv.  47).  He  relieved  the  city  of  Gilead,  Jabesh,  besieged 
by  King  Nahash.  Amongst  the  plunder  was  the  royal  crown  (2 
Sam.  xii.  30,  it  is  correctly  translated  by  Luther)^  and  he  had  a 
diadem  made  foi'  himself  from  it.  Under  Solomon,  in  whose  time 
objects  of  the  cult  ("  abomination  of  Moab/'  like  the  statue  of 
Chemosh  of  Moab,  see  2  Kings  xxiii.)  were  misused  in  idolatry,  the 
Ammonites  were  still  tributary ;  he  had  Ammonite  women,  the 
mother  of  Rehoboam  amongst  them,  in  his  harem.  Accordino-  to 
2  Chr.  XX.  1  the  Ammonites  later  supported  King  Mesa  against 
Israel-Judah  and  invaded  Judah.  The  record  is  not  an  invention 
and  must  not  be  judged  as  a  "midrash,"  rather  it  entirely  corre- 
sponds  witla  the  Situation  described  in  2  Kings  iii. ;  onlv  the  campaio-n 
of  Jehoshaphat  appears  here  as  an  independent  one,  whereas  he 
must  be  considered  as  amongst  the  followers  of  Jehoram.  Arnos  i. 
13  fF.  shows  that  later  the  Anunouites  remained  bitter  enemies  to 
Israel. 

What  the  Baal  of  xA.mmon  was  called  Me  do  not  know.  The 
name  Pudu-ilu  contains  the  divine  name  Ilu  =  El.  The  name 
Milcom  is  possibly  an  eai-ly  misundei'standing  of  2  Sam.  xii.  30. 
Erbt,  Hebräer,  23.5,  explains  the  abomination  (2  Kings  xxiii.  13 
tö'eba)  of  the  Ammonites'  "Milcom"  as  mcdkä-milkä  (Ashera  as 
Queen  of  Heaven).  Hommel,  Aufs,  vnd  Abk.,  1.5.5,  compares  with 
the  name  bene  Anmion  the  designation  of  the  Catabanians  as 
walad  '^Amm — that  is,  'Amm  children,  and  explains  it  as  worshippers 
of  '^Amm.  'Amm  signifies  '^'uncle,"  and  a])pears  in  Babylonian 
names  in  the  same  way  as  Ab,  "father,"  and  Ah,  '^' brother,"  as 
designation  of  the  divinity,  and  really  'Amm  (ammu  ;  hammii,  for 
example,  in  Hammurabi)  is  not  essentially  Babylonian,  but  is  a 
"  West  Semitic  "  foreign  word  (see  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  480).  Accordino- 
to  Hommel,  G.  G.  G.,  p.  85,  'Amm  denotes  the  Moon-god  ;  compare  the 
name  'Amm-ner,  "  ^Amm  is  the  giver  of  light,"  /.<?.,  p.  93.  But  the 
Arabian  divine  names  claimed  by  Hommel  for  the  lunar  cult  may, 
in  the  same  way  as  Ah,  chiefly  bear  much  more  Tammuz  character 
(cycle  with  emphasis  of  Moon  motif).  Whether  the  appearances 
of  Tammuz  bear  solar  or  lunar  character  depends  upon  the  stamp 
of  the  cult  at  the  particular  time  ;  see  })p.  86,  i.,  125,  i.  Hence  the 
discord  in  them.  The  epithet  of  the  Catabanians  as  walad  'Amm 
may,  like  bene  Amnion,  denote  the  original  ancestor. 

Gen.  XX.  (Sarah  and  Abimelech),  see  p.  20.  Gen.  xxi.  9  ff. 
(Hagar  and  Ishmael),  see  pp.  34  ff.  Gen.  xxi.  23  (El  'olam),  see 
p.  13. 

^  See  Guthe,  Bibehvörterbiidi,  533.  The  pilgrims'  road  to  Mecca  now  jjasses 
over  the  ruins. 


48     GLOSSES   ON   HISTORIES  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS 

The  Saa'ißce  of  Isaac 

Gen.  xxii.:  The  sacrifice  is  oiüy  froni  the  Elohist  source.  It 
is  also  the  only  thing  about  Isaac  taken  from  this  source.  Froni 
Beer-sheba'  he  is  to  go  into  the  country  ....  and  upon  a 
mountain,  shown  to  hini  by  God,  he  is  to  sacrifice  his  son.  The 
holv  mountain  of  the  Elohists  is  Horeb,  where  God  appears  to 
Moses  and  to  which  Elias  journeyed.^  This  mountain  lies  in 
the  district  of  the  Arabian  Muzri.  Therefore  we  read  it,  with 
Cheyne,  "  to  the  land  of  Muzri."  ^  The  later  stories  of  the  Y 
and  E  presuppose  such  a  place  of  worship  of  the  "  God  of 
the  Hebrews "  in  this  neighbourhood.^ 

The  father  sacrifices  the  son/  but  a  Substitute  is  pvovided.  1 
Sam.  xiv.  36  ff.  ofFers  a  parallel  to  this.  The  divine  judgmeut, 
brought  about  by  the  lielp  of  Urim  and  Thunuiüm,  must  have 
led  to  the  death  of  Jonathan,  which,  according  to  the  whole 
circumstances,  would  be,  in  the  sense  of  the  {K)pular  Yahveh 
religion,^  a  sacrifice  before  Yahveh.  "  So  the  people  ransomed 
Jonathan,  that  he  died  not"  (1  Sam.  xiv.  45).  What  was  the 
Substitute .'' 

An  analogv  to  religious  history  is  oftercd  by  the  sacrifice  of 
Agamemnon,  //.,  viii.  245  ff.  Like  the  ram  for  Isaac,  so  the 
deer  stood  in  place  of  Agamemnon's  daughter. 

'  Identical  with  the  Sinai  of  the  Song  of  Deborah,  Judges  v.  ;  comp,  furliier, 
Deut,  xxxiii.  2  ;  Ps.  Ixviii,  9  ;  comp.  Heb.  iii.  3. 

-  The  reading  Moriah  is  from  the  hand  of  an  adapter  wlio  loolcs  upon  Zion- 
Moriah  instead  of  Sinai-Horeb  as  the  Mountain  of  God  and  centie  of  gravity  of 
the  universe  (comp.  p.  24,  i.).  The  interpretation  of  the  place  by  the  play  of  words 
nxT  mn'  is  from  the  same  hand.  With  this  the  usual  conjectures  settle  them- 
selves.  The  Samaritan  tradition  removes  the  scene,  according  to  their  habit,  to 
Gerizim  ;  see  Z.D.P.P'.,  vi.  198;  vii.  132  f.  Pesh  reads  ncs-n,  "  land  of  the 
.•\morites." 

'  Comp.  pp.  2,  98  ff. 

■*  Should  the  rejection  of  Ishmael,  Gen.  14  ff.,  pass  as  a  counterpart  ?  That 
might  be  accepted,  without  agreeing  with  Slucken's  deduclions.  Hagar,  so  it  is 
Said,  "cannotlook  upon  the  death  of  the  boy."  An  angel  appears  :  "  Go,  lift  up 
the  (dead?)  lad  and  take  him  by  the  hand.  I  will  make  him  a  great  nation."  A 
similar  promise  was  certainly  contained  also  in  the  Elohist  story  of  Isaac. 

*  We  have  here  an  Illustration  of  the  cult  of  the  populär  religion,  which 
approachesvery  near  heathenism,  whilst  the  story  of  the  saciitice,  Gen.  xxii.,  shows 
the  spirit  of  the  ideal  religion,  which  we  have  already  taken  for  granted  in  the 
patriarchal  age  ;  see  p.  15. 


SUBSTITUTION   IN   THE   SACRIFICE  49 

The  thought  that  at  tlie  altar  the  sacrifice  of  an  animal  takes  the 
place  of  a  human  being/  is  at  the  root  of  the  sin-oiFering  throughoiit 
the  whole  of  the  antique  world.  Smith-Stäbe^,  Religion  der  Semiten, 
p.  279,  gives  examples^  amongst  others,  of  the  Egyptians,  where 
the  sacrifice  was  dressed  with  a  seal  which  bore  the  picture  of  a 
bound  man^  with  the  sword  at  his  throat.  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3vd  ed., 
597^  quotes,  amongst  others,  the  Babylonian  religioiis  text  IV.  R.  26, 
No.  6  : 

"The  himb,  the  Substitute  for  man, 
the  lamb,  he  gives  for  their  hfe. 
He  gives  the  head  of  the  lamb  for  the  head  of  man, 
the  neck  of  the  lamb  for  the  neck  of  man, 
the  breast  of  the  lamb  he  gives  for  the  breast  of  man."  " 

In  another  text  (Zimmern,  Keilinsc.hnften  n/id  Bibel,  p.  27)  it  is 
Said  : 

"Give  a  sucking-pig  as  Substitute  for  him  (the  sick  man),  the 
flesh  instead  of  his  flesh,  give  the  blood  instead  of  his  blood,  and 
the  gods  may  accept  it." 

Further,  the  idea  of  Substitution  is  found  in  the  contract  between 
Assurniräri  and  Mati -ilu,^  in  ratification  of  which  a  sheep  is  sacri- 
ficed,  and  the  animal  and  its  parts  represent  symbolically  the 
breaker  of  the  contract  and  the  parts  of  his  body  : 

"  This  head  is  not  the  head  of  the  goat  .  .  .  .  it  is  the  head  of 
Mati'-ilu.  ...  If  Mati'-ilu  [breaks]  this  oath,  as  the  head  of  this 
goat  is  cut  off  ....  so  shall  the  head  of  Mati'-ilu  be  cut  off.  .  .  . 
This  loin  is  not  the  loin  of  the  goat,  it  is  the  loin  of  Mati'-ilu,"  and 
so  on. 

Gen.  xxiii. :  Purchase  of  the  cave  from  the  native  inhabitants  ; 
the  Hittites  are  owners  of  the  land  ;  comp.  p.  340,  i.  It  is  treat- 
ing  of  a  sepulchral  cave  artificially  hewn  in  the  rock,  which  is 
to  serve  as  burying-place  for  Abraham  ;  comp.  v.  4.  The  form 
of  purchase  is  exactly  the  same  to  the  present  day  in  the  East ; 
see  Baedeker,  Palestine,  1904. 

Gen.  xxiii.  16:  ^^  He  xceighedthe  money  there^^four  hundred 
shekels,  keseplu — current  coin.'"''  Stamped  coins  were  only  known  to 
the  East  after  the  Persian  age.  But  from  ancient  times  they 
ah-eady  had  weighed  pieces  of  metal,  which  were  weighed  in  pur- 

1  Comp.  Gen.  xxii.  :  the  ram  in  place  of  Isaac.  Compare  further  the  above- 
mentioned  deer  in  place  of  Agamemnon's  daughter. 

■'  Compare  herewith  the  principles  of  the  tus  talionis  in  H.  C.  and  in  the  Thora  : 
"  eye  for  eye,  tooth  for  tooth,"  etc. 

^  Peiser  in  M.  ]\A.G.,  1S9S,  22S  ff.  ;  see  Lev.  xvi.  S. 
VOL.    II.  4 


50     GLOSSES   ON    HISTORIES  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS 

chasing.'-  The  word  for  weighing  is  the  saine  here  as  in  the 
Assyrian :  shaqahi.  Kesepli  ( Assyrian  kaspu)  are  the  current  pieces 
of  metal ;  shiqlu  laspi  is  the  usual  unit  in  the  cuneiform  con- 
tracts.-  When  in  one  of  the  Amarna  Letters  Janhanm  of  Milkiel 
(in  the  neighbonrhood  of  Jerusalem  )tak  es  "several  thousand  ^'j/?? 
(biltu)  for  ransoni/"  it  can  only  niean  copper,  on  account  of  the 
quantitv.  That  would  showthat  "copper''  was  the  only  coin  in 
Canaan  (a  poor  land  ?).  In  Babylon  silver  was  the  foundation  of 
the  nionetary  systeni,  foi-  kaspu  nieans  simply  "  nioney."  In 
Egvpt,  land  of  the  sun,  gold  niust  have  been  the  nieasure  of  value. 
In  so  far  as  it  was  silver,  it  shows  the  intluence  of  Babylon. 
Also  the  stress  laid  upon  one  or  other  of  the  nietals  originally 
depended  upon  the  influence  of  the  astral  religion.  Each  of  the 
planets  has  a  metal,  as  the  cult  of  Mithra  shows  with  particular 
clearness.  Silver  is  the  metal  of  the  moon,  gold  of  the  sun,^ 
copper  is  the  metal  of  Ishtar.*  That  might  correspond  (in  the 
age  which  emphasised  the  cult  of  the  moon)^  with  Babylon 
(moon),  Egvpt  (sun),  Canaan  ( Ashera-Ishtar). 

^  This  is  done,  for  example,  with  ducats  lo  ihe  piesent  tiay 

'  In  Assyrian  "  copper"  is  wilhout  any  explanatory  addition  =  iJz7/«  (pronuncia- 
tion?) ;  "silver"  without  addition  =  ;//«;/?< ;  "gold"  without  addition  =  5//?V//?<. 

■*  Comp.  III.  R.  55,  60 :  A  disc  of  gold  was  consecrated  to  the  Sun-god. 
Compare  with  this  fact,  Winckler,  A'.A .  T. ,  3rd  ed. ,  340  f.  To  the  Western  Asiatic 
fabulous  treasures  of  gold  were  hiddcn  in  Egypt,  as  land  of  the  sun  (Underworld). 
For  gold  and  the  Underworld,  see  p.  234,  i.,  n.  2.  In  the  Amarna  Letters  they 
were  thirsting  for  gold  from  Egypt.  It  is  emphasised  that  Abraham  and  Isaac 
came  back  from  the  Southland  rieh. 

■•  Hommel  suggests  the  resemblance  between  iiehoshet  (copper),  and  {irnhshti) 
(vulva).     Was  the  coin  of  Ishtar  the  stater? 

^  Comp.  Winckler,  F.,  ii.  394  f.  ;  C.  F.  Lehmann,  Babyloiiiens  Kulturmission, 
p.  41.  The  cycle  of  the  moon  and  the  sun  are  in  the  proportion  of  27  :  360  = 
I  :  13J.  This  is  the  proportion  of  value  between  silver  and  gold  which  was 
always  held  by  antiquity.  Copper  Stands  to  silver  as  i  :  60  or  as  i  :  72.  Silver 
and  gold  are  as  the  monlh  to  the  year  ;  copper  represents  a  division  of  the  year 
into  sixty  "  weeks  "  of  six  days  each  (only  to  be  concluded  theoretically  and  by 
calculation),  or  into  seventy-two  weeks  of  five  days  each  (which  is  atlested).  We 
are  accustonied  to  look  upon  the  cstiniatio7i  as  the  Standard  of  value.  If  this  held 
good  in  antiquity  the  value  must  have  fluctuated  with  the  rarity.  And  why  did 
they  take  silver  and  gold  for  Standard  of  value  ?  There  were  more  precious  things. 
The  suitability  for  coins  does  not  come  into  consideration,  for  they  only  weighed 
the  metal.  But  even  if  some  practical  considerations  bore  upon  it,  a  theological  con- 
sideration, in  the  Ancient-Oriental  sense,  such  as  wasspoken  of  at  pp.  4,  i.,  66,  i.  ff., 
became  the  Standard  which  has  dominated  the  whole  world  (with  the  excejition  of 
some  remote  parts  of  the  South  Sea  and  of  Africa)  right  on  into  the  modern  age. 


REBEKAH   AND   HER   SONS  51 

Gen  xxiv.  3,  see  pj).  77  and  121,  i.,  n.  2;  xxiv.  i,  see  p.  36; 
xxiv.  -iO,  see  p.  l-i. 

^  Gen.  xxiv.  65,  etc.  (Rebekah).  Rebekah  is,  like  Sarahs  en- 
dowed  with  motifs  of  Ishtar.  At  the  meeting  with  Isaac,  xxiv.  65, 
she  "  took  her  veil  ^  and  covered  herself "  ;  comp.  p.  62.  She 
appears  in  Gerar  as  sister  and  wife  of  Isaac^  in  the  same  rule  as 
Sarah ;  see  p.  20.  The  harren  ^  beconies  friiitful.  The  sons 
striigglino;  within  the  niother  (exactly  as  with  Tamar-Ishtar, 
xxxviii.  28  ff.)-^  bears  the  motif  of  the  two  halves  of  the  world, 
that  is  to  say,  of  the  cycle  of  the  universe  :  the  ruddy^  hairy  Esaii, 
and  Jacob,  who  holds  on  to  his  heel.'*  The  oracle  of  Yahveh,  xxv. 
23  ff.  (comp,  xxvii.  28  iF. ;  Hosea  xii.),,  speaks  of  the  strife  between 
the  two  in  this  sense.  Edom  and  Se'u*  are  motif  words  in  regard 
to  Esau.  Esau  dwells  in  Se'ir,  the  Soiithland  (xxxii.  3  ;  comp, 
xxxiii.  14.  xxxvi.  8),  and  is  father  of  the  Edomites. 

The  Southland  is  the  land  of  the  sun  ;  see  p.  30.  In  mytho- 
logical  language  the  i-ays  of  the  sun  are  spoken  of  as  hair — red  hair 
is  sun  rays  ;  white  hair,  moon  rays.  The  hairy  Esau,  Gen.  xxvii. 
21-23,  is  called  Edom.  Edom  means  not  only  red,  but  also  hairv. 
Ah'eady  at  birth.  Gen.  xxv.  25,  he  came  out  admoni — that  is,  hairy 
and  red  at  the  same  time.  Also  in  the  geographical  name  Se'ir 
the  hair  motif  sounds.  Esau  corresponds  to  the  dark  Underwoi-ld 
half,  Jacob  to  the  fighting  and  conquering  Overworld  half — that  is 
to  say,  moon  and  sun,  or  light  moon  and  dark  moon.  It  is  the 
Dioscuri  as  iniinical  brothers,  like  Cain  and  Abel.  The  motif  runs 
all  through.  It  is  preferably  veiied  in  the  Opposition  of  the 
occupations.  Jacob  "dwells  in  tents  "  (shepherd,  like  Abel),  Esau 
is  the  "  man  of  the  field  "  (agriculturalist,  like  Cain).  The  moon 
is  shepherd,  the  sun  is  agriculturalist  (the  field  is  the  kingdom 
of  the  Underworld,  all  chthonistic  gods  are  gods  of  the  grain). 
Another  Opposition  of  occupations  =  Overworld  and  Underworld  is 
Singer  and  smith  (Jabal  the  musician,  and  Tubal  the  smith  ;  Abel 
and  [Tubal]  Cain  ;  see  p.  239,  i.)-^  According  to  xxv.  28,  Isaac  loved 
Esau,  because  tsayid  was  in  his  mouth.  That  can  scarcely  mean 
anything  eise  than  song ;  see  Winckler,  I.e.,  4'22,  who  mentions  the 
goddess  Zidon  in  Philo,  who  "invented  song,  because  she  had  a 
beautiful  voice,"  and  Esau  =  Se'ir  =  Pan,  skilled  in  music,  singer 
in  ihe  Underworld,  comp.  Orpheus  ;  the  designation  as  "^''V^', 
'"^goat,"  by    the    Rabbis    agrees  with    this.     The    opposing    smith 

1  -l'i'V,  motif  Word,  unly  again  recurring  in  the  Tamar-Ishtar  story,  Gen. 
xxxviii.  14  and  19. 

^  7\-)\:V  as  Ishtar  motif ;  see  p.  20,  n.  5- 

^  The  red  thread  here  symbolises,  as  the  red  colour  of  Esau,  the  dark  half  o(  the 
World  (the  Dragon,  the  power  of  the  Underworld  is  red,  see  p.  152,  i. ) ;  B.N.T., 
42  ;  Rev.  xii.  3,  xvii.  3  ;  compare  also  the  colour  symbolism  in  Isa.  i.  18.  Upon 
the  strife  of  Esau  and  Jacob  in  the  mother's  womb,  compare  also  Hosea  xii.  3. 

■•  Motif  of  the  cycle  ;  see  p.  31,  i.,  n.  2  ;  234,  i. 

^  Tailor  and  cobbler  =  Overworld  and  Underworld  ;  see  p.  31. 


52     GLOSSES   ON    HISTOHIES  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS 

raay  be  found  in  the  haltiiig  Jacob  (Hephaestos).  Esau  as  "man 
of  tsat/id "  is,  further,  a  hunter.  The  Opposition  is  Jacob  as 
tarn ;  xxv.  27.  As  in  the  foregoing  case,  the  motifs  here  rast 
lipon  the  famihar  reversal.  Like  the  singer,  the  hunter  would 
correspond  to  the  moon  (Overworld),  the  (dm  motif  (Urim  =  hght, 
Thummim  =  darkness  as  Opposition  to  Urim  ;  nay  and  yea,  death 
and  life)  to  the  sun  (ünderworld),^  so  here  we  have  the  reversal, 
Esau  as  man  of  tsaijid  corresponds  to  the  power  of  the  ünderworld, 
as  in  Arabian  ihn  t.icajydcl  is  the  devil  ;  Jacob  as  idm  is  the  man 
of  the  light  half.-^--}< 

'f^  Another  Opposition  of  motifs  is  .sa'h-  (hairy)  and  /lalak  (smooth), 
xxvii.  11  ;  compare  the  cosmic  geographica!  names  in  Joshua  xi.  17 
and  xii.  7.  -f^ 

Gen.  xxv.  IS  :  Nebaiolh.  This  is  tlie  Nabay^iti  of  Assurbanipal ; 
here,  as  in  Isa.  Ix.  7,  named  along  with  the  Kedar,  that  is,  the 
Ai-abians  (Kidri),  who  settled  under  Assurbanipal.  They  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  Nabataeans  (contrary  to  K.A.T.,  2nd  ed.,  147). 
In  Neh.  vi.  2  (see  K.A.T.,  Srd  ed.,  151,  296)  Gashmu,  the  Arabian, 
is  a  prince  of  the  Nebaioth.  Adbeel  is  the  Dibi'ihi,  that  is,  Idiba'il 
of  the  annals  of  Tighvthpileser  III.  Mishm;!',  comp.  Isanune'  of 
Assurbani]:)al  (A'.i5.,  ii.  220)  =  guardian  of  a  sanctuary  of  Attar- 
samain,  siinilar  to  the  Korrishites.  The  Assyrian  narae  has  nothing 
to  do  with  Ishmael  (contrary  to  K.A.T.,  2nd  ed.,  148).  Massä, 
compare  the  Mas'ai  of  Tiglathpileser,  and  Assurbanipal,  also  in 
evidence  in  a  letter,  a  North  Babylonian  tribe.  Teima,  compare  the 
Temai  brought  forward  along  with  the  Mas'ai.  It  is  the  present 
Teima,  in  North  Arabia,  where  lately  several  Aramaic  inscriptions 
were  found,  upon  the  largest  one  of  which  the  name  of  the  city 
Teima  is  repeatedly  mentioned. 

Gen.  xxv.  18:  "■  n'here  f/iou  goesf  toivanls  Asshitr."  Possibly 
the  Arabian  country  is  meant,  see  Glaser,  Släzze,  ii.  433  ff.  ; 
Hommel,  Altis.  ÜherL,  p.  240. 

Gen.  xxvi.  1  ff.  (Isaac  and  Rebecca  in  Gerar) ;  comp.  p.  20  with 
Gen.  xii.  and  xx.     Gen.   xxvi.  34  f.  ;  see  pp.  339,  i-  f. 

Gen.  xxvii.  21-23:  The  deception  takes  place  through  the 
hair  of  the  kids  of  the  goats  (comp.  1  Sam.  xix.  13).  Isaac 
feels  hini  and  i.s  deeeived.  The  result  of  the  deception  is  that 
Esau  must  serve  Jacob. 

Stucken,  Astralmytken,  iv.  342  ff.,  points  out  the  same  motif  in 
tlie  fable  of  Polyphemus  ^  throughout  Western  Asia  and  Europe, 

'  That  is  to  say,  light  moon  and  dark  moon. 

-  The  connection  of  the  taut  motif  with  the  motif  /an  by  VVinckler,  loc.  dt., 
p.  420,  appears  to  me  scarcely  acceptable. 

•"•  See  Wilhelm  Grimm,  "  Die  Sage  von  Polyphem,"  Abh.  der  Kgl.  Alcad.  der 
Wissenschaften,  Berlin,  1857. 


JACOB^S   DREAM  53 

where  the  blind  cyclops  is  deceived  by  a  ram's  Heece  which  he 
feels,  and  the  related  motif  in  the  fable  of  Kronos  (Hesiod,  Theog., 
467  if.)  :  Rhea  wraps  a  stone  in  the  fleece  of  a  ram ;  Kronos  feels 
it^  and  takes  it  for  his  son  ;  the  result  of  this  deception  is  the 
change  of  rule.  Zeus  attains  the  lordship  over  the  world  ;  the 
Titans  (the  ^^  iniraical  brothers  ")  become  subject  to  him.  Finally, 
Paulus  Diaconus,  i.  S^  transmits  a  variant  of  the  G rivmismal  Saga 
[Edda,  Gering,  pp.  68  ff.)  according  to  which  Frigga  niakes  the 
hairless  son  hairy  and  thereby  causes  her  husband  to  bless  her 
favourite. 

Gen.  xxvii.  27  :  Isaac  smells  the  smell  of  the  garments.  "  The 
smell  of  the  field"  is  the  fragrance  of  flowers  (comp.  2  Kings 
xix.  26).  It  is  referring  to  festival  garments  (ver.  15),  which 
amongst  Orientais  are  scented.  "  The  smell  of  field  labour 
would  be  something  abominable  to  the  Oriental.""  ^ 

The  Dn'am  of  the  Celest'ial  Ladder 

Gen.  xxviii.  Two  stories  are  interwoven.  Yahveh  himself 
appears  in  the  dream  in  the  Yahvist  story.  In  the  Elohist  it 
is  the  angels  of  God  {maVakim).  As  Gen.  xxxii.  2  and  other 
passages  show,  the  angels  are  in  the  train  of  Yahveh  for  the 
Elohist.  The  Yahvist  only  knows  one  angel  of  Yahveh  ;  it 
appears  as  though  the  mention  of  angels  seemed  to  him  to  have 
a  heathen  Havour,  and  to  be  a  depreciation  of  the  majesty  of 
Yahveh.-^ 

On  the  ground  of  the  religious  truths  set  forth  in  the 
Christian  conception  and  in  review  of  the  gospel  records  of  the 
life  of  Jesus,  we  recognise  realities  of  the  transcendental  \\orld  in 
the  angelology  of  the  Ancient-Israelite  religion.  "  God  made  the 
winds  his  messengers,  and  flames  of  fire  his  ministers,"  ^  but  He 
has  also  other  "  ministering  spirits"  (Heb.  i.  14),  to  do  His  will 

1  Winckler,  /•'. ,  iii.  426. 

-  Comp.  p.  194,  i.,  n.  2.  Contrary  to  Holzinger,  loc.  cit.,  who  construes  it  the 
contrary  way.  Zimmern,  K.A.  T.,  yd  ed.,  456  f.  (comp.  Gunkel,  280),  sees  in  the 
Biblical  angels  traces  of  "  dispossessed  gods,"  conformably  with  his  fundamental 
view  which  sees  in  the  Isiaelite  (and  finally  also  in  the  Christian)  religion  a 
refined  mythology. 

*  Ps.  civ.  4,  comp.  Ps.  cxlviii.  S.  It  is  remarkable  that  Luther  translates  in  the 
opposite  way:  "Thou  makest  thine  angels  wind,  and  thy  servants  flames  of  fire." 
If  we  were  to  lake  this  literally  and  not  as  only  a  poetic  figure  of  speech  making 
use  of  mythology,  we  should  come  back  to  "  Babylonian  "  conceptions  ;  compare 
the  messenger  of  the  gods  Nusku-Gibil,  that  is,  Fire. 


54     GLOSSES   ON   HISTORIES  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS 


aniongst  nien.  And  when  the  cuneiforni  texts  speak  of  the 
divine  "  niessengers  of  gra-ce^^  ('""'^"  ap'il  sh'ipri  sha  dunlu)  who 
acconipanv  the  king  in  his  canipaign  (K  523),  or  of  the 
"giiardian  of  health  and  hfe   who  Stands  at   the   king's  side" 

(K     948),^     they     are     presenting     a 

religious  truth. 

In  the  Old  Testament  we  must  dis- 

tinguish  between  : 

1.  The  mal'ak  Yahveh  (  =  pene 
Yahveh),  which  represents  the  visible 
appearance  of  the  divinity,  in  place  of 
which  in  the  period  of  the  Temple  we 
have  the  appearance  of  God  in  the 
holy  of  hohes. 

2.  The  presentnient  of  messengers 
of  God,  which  the  Yahveh  rehgion  has 
in  common  with  the  esoteiic  rehgions 
of  the  extra-Bibhcal  world ;  for  ex- 
ample,  Isa.  Ixiii.  9. 

3.  The  cosmological  angelology, 
which  looks   upon    the   stars    as   com- 

municatois  of  the  will  of  God,  and  as  the  armies  of  God 
(Yahveh  Sabaoth,  Yahveh  enthroned  above  the  cherubim).  In 
pure  Yahveh  religion  this  presentment  has  only  a  symbolic, 
that  is  to  say,  a  poetic  meaning  ;  for  example,  Isa.  xxiv.  21, 
where  the  eneniies  of  Yahveh  appear  as  "  hosts  of  the  height," 
as  the  heathcn  astral  gods  whose  dominion  Yahveh  takes  away.'' 
In  the  Yahveh  populär  religion  the  presentments  are  more 
concrete,  as  in  the  Song  of  Deborah,  where  the  fighting  of  the 
stars  in  their  courses  against  Sisera  is  not  meant  to  be  taken 
only  as  poetry.  The  angels  in  Jacob's  dream  are,  to  a  certain 
extent,  a  niidway  stage,  in  so  far  as  the  dream  presents  the 
cosmic  Temple,  the  stairs  up  to  which  are  represented  by  the 
stages  of  the  planet  cycles. 

4.  The    angelology    of    the   post-Biblical    Jewish    litcrature, 
which  is  influenced  by  Babylonian   mythology,  and   which  con- 

1  See  Delitzsch,  B.B.,  i.  4th  ed.,  71,  and  compare  our  figs.  67  f.  and  122. 
-  See  p.  195,  i. 


iii;.  122. — Assyrian  guardian 
angel  fruni  Nimrud  (Ashur- 
nazir-pal). 


JACOB^S   DREAM  55 

tradicts  the  spivit  of  the  Yahveh  religion,  and,  on  the  contrary, 
is  nearly  related  to  the  heathen  populär  religion  of  the  pre- 
exilic  period.i  -j;}^^  post-exilic  Jewish  theology  as  already 
showing  itself  in  the  xVpocryphal  books  has  here  appropriated 
anew  elements  from  the  Babylonian  and  the  Babylonianised 
Parsee  religion,  which  retained  the  simple  presentment  of  angels 
like  caricatures.  The  "  depo.sed  gods  "  may  be  looked  for  here.  ^ 
According  to  E  (Gen.  xxviii.  13-16),  what  Jacob  sees  is  the 
celestial  palace,  the  prototype  of  all  Western  Asiatic  teniple 
buildings:  "This  is  the  divine  palace  !  this  is  the  gate  of  heaven.^' 
In  his  dream  the  place  appears  to  him  as  the  celestial  point 
(pole)  cf  the  earth.^  From  here  was  the  ascent  to  be  made, 
Ilere,  therefore,  was  the  entrance  to  the  heavenly  palace. 
Comp.  Gen.  xxxv.  7  :  "  there  God  was  revealed  unto  him." 
Steps  lead  upwards :  in  the  conception  of  the  universe  the  seven 
stages  of  the  planet  heavens  leading  to  the  highest  heaven 
correspond  to  the  sidlam.^     The  "  gate  of  heaven''  is  in  Baby- 

1  Upon  the  difference  between  Yahveh  religion,  Yahveh  populär  religion,  and 
(heathen)  populär  religion,  see  p.  15. 

-  Upon  the  angelology  of  the  New  Testament,  see  B.iV.T.,  85  f.  The  appear- 
ances  of  angels  in  the  gospels  and  epistles  correspond  to  the  appearances  in  the 
Biblical  Old  Testament  writings  distinguished  under  heads  i  and  2  above  ;  m 
the  -KX^dos  arpariäs  ovpaviov,  Luke  ii.  13,  and  in  passages  like  Matt.  xxvi.  53, 
Rom.  viii.  38,  Col.  i.  16,  Rev.  i.  20,  and  others  the  physical  background 
distinguished  under  3  shows.  The  Pauline  Epistles  and  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  (comp,  also  Rev.  xix.  9,  xxii.  8  ff.)  protest  against  Jewish  angelology. 
Passages  like  Jude  vi.,  2  Pet.  ii.  4,  and,  on  the  other  band,  Jude  ix.  (comp. 
Rev.  xii.  7  ff ),  are  not  in  the  same  category  with  the  Jewish  Persian  angelology. 
They  are  the  result  of  the  same  Oriental  teaching  as  the  Jewish,  but  they  are  not 
purely  mythological  as  that  is,  but  represent  religious  realities. 

■■  Comp.  p.  54,  i.,  and  now  Wmckler,  F.,  iii.  427  ;  Babylonian  ;/iari-as  shame 
and  irtsUim,  the  point  where  heaven  and  earth  meet  (Nibiru  point,  pp.  21,  i.  f.). 
In  Sohar,  aware  of  the  ancient  view  (see  B.N.T.,  65),  it  is  said  {Sulzb.  Ausg., 
fol.  124,  col.  492) :  "  Upon  that  stone  the  world  is  founded,  but  it  is  its  centre,  m 
it  is  the  holy  of  hohes,  the  stone  which  the  builders  rejected."  It  is  the  M«o-o^<;6a\ia 
7otr,s  of  the  Greeks  (Delphi);  Gunkel,  Genesis,  Ist  ed.,  p.  29.  In  the  second 
edition  Gunkel  has  omitted  the  passage  which  looks  upon  Bethel  as  the  pole  ot 
the  earth  (why?). 

■*  See  pp.  15,  i.  ff.  The  steps  are  called  sulldm.  Compare  Phoen.  no'^o,  possibly 
stairway.  Wm'ckler's  conception  as  "  bow,"  M.  VA.  G. ,  1901,  352  f.,  thinks  with 
P.  Rost  of  the  bow-shaped  zodiac  and  of  the  sillu  in  inscriptions  on  buildings, 
the  arch  of  the  gateway  with  ascending  and  descending  genii,  see  fig.  6.  When 
populär  pictures  paint  the  ladder  as  a  bow  other  mythologies  (see,  for  example, 
p.  167,  i.,  and  the  ancient  Germanic  celestial  bridge)  are  certainly  mixed  up  with  it. 


56     GLOSSES  ON   HISTORIES  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS 

lonian  bäb-ili  (thus  the  name  Babilu  is  indicated  as  centre 
of  the  World),  the  "  high  door."  The  other  nanie,  Luz 
(Gen.  xxviii.  19  ;  comp.  xxxv.  6,  xlviii.  3),  has  the  same  cosmic 
importance.  Luz  is  "refuge""  (Arabic,  laud),  the  holy  of 
hohes  in  the  Teniple,  seat  of  the  sur/vmis  deiis  in  the  universe.^ 

The  dreain-picture,  therefore,  corresponds  to  the  "  Babylonian "" 
picture  of  the  world.  And  it  could  not  be  otherwise.  It 
corresponds  to  the  world  as  the  fancy  of  the  primitive  age  of 
Israel  was  familiär  with  it.  If  God  were  going  to  give  comfort 
to  a  man  in  a  dream  to-day,  the  dream  would  take  a  European 
form,  not  Chinese. 

In  the  Mithra  cult^  in  place  of  the  seven  planet  stages  leading 
up  to  the  tower,  and  each  one  of  a  different  colour,  we  find  a  ladder 
of  seven  different  metals  (compare  the  /cAt/xa^  e;rTa7rvAos  of  Origen's 
Contra  Cehum,  vi.),  by  which  souls  ascend  and  descend,  and  the 
gates  of  which  correspond  to  the  "  houses  "  of  the  seven  planets  ; 
the  eighth  gate  leads  to  the  liighest  heaven  (comp.  Cumont^  Die 
Mysterien  des  Mithra,  108,  but  in  addition  Dieterich,  Mitkrasliturgie, 
89)-  A  similar  presentment  is  also  recorded  amongst  the  Egyptians : 
at  the  west  of  the  horizon  Stands  a  heavenly  ladder,  guarded  by 
Hathor,  by  which  the  souls  of  the  dead  ascend  to  heaven.- 

Gen.  xxix.^  see  p.  37  ;  xxix.  27,  see  p.  198,  i.  ;  xxx.  1  ff.,  see 
p.  34. 

Gen,  xxx.  14  fF.  (Love  apples),  see  p.  209,  i.,  n,  2.  Bereshit 
Rabba  interprets  as  "  plant  of  love";  in  Babylonian  that  would 
be  the  "  plant  of  birth  "  {shammii  sha  alädi). 

Gen.  xxxi.  19,  33-35 :  Rachel  stole  her  father.s  tcrnplijm^^ 
and  hid  them  in  the  saddle  of  the  cartiel.     It  was  an  article  of 

'  Winckler,  /"'.,  iii.  423  f.,  conjectures  that  'i/Za/zi  belongs  to  Luz  ("  hall  of 
refucje");  ia  that  case  certainly  also  the  assonance  with  'o/d///  (north  point,  in 
Opposition  to  Qedem)  may  be  intended.  The  Jewish  fable,  according  to  which 
Abraham  built  a  refuge.  has  been  mentioned  p.  15.  That  is  certainly  not  with- 
out  foundation.  The  chronicler  is  aware  of  the  importance  of  the  refuge  (Winckler, 
Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  66,  recalls  the  founding  of  the  refuge  by  Romulus,  Liv.  i.  8). 
Israelite  Canaan  has  six  cities  of  refuge  ;  Gen.  xxxi.  49  records  the  building  of 
such  an  one  (Ramoth  Gilead  =  Ramath  Mizpeh,  according  to  Joshua  xiii.  26) :  "so 
that  one  man  may  protect  [^na,  as  in  Ps.  xxvii.  5,  where  it  is  speaking  of  the 
heavenly  refuge]  hiniself  from  another." 

-  Gunkel,  2nd  ed.,  p.  2S0,  shares  with  Prof.  K.  Sethe  the  assertlon,  according  to 
which  the  ladder  was  set  up  by  Osiris  by  a  magic  charm,  therefore,  probably, 
was  not  there  permanently.  But  even  then  also  the  same  conception  lies  at 
the  root. 

■'  Plur.  majcst.,  like  cloltiin  ;  see  pp.   13  f. 


JACOB'S   STAFF 


57 


worship  in    tlie  populär  religion  of   RachePs    home.      Possibly 

the  image  of  an    idol,    as    was    usual    in 

Khorsabad  for  domestic  worship    (see  fig. 

123).     Also  in  Israel  teraphim  belonged 

to    the    populär   religion.     1    Sani.    xix. 

12-16  :  Michal  laid  the  teraphim  in  the 

bed  and  disguised  the  statue  with  a  goat's 

skin  and  garments  to  look  like  the  filgure 

of  a  man.     In  both  cases  the  statue  may 

be  held  to  have  heen  an  amulet  to  protect 

the  husband  froni  hostile  snares.^ 

Gen.  xxxi.  32  f.,  see  p.  38  ;  xxxi.  33, 
see  p.  38. 

Jcicolis  Stoff' 

Gen.  xxxii.  10  :  ""  I  had  nothing  but 
this  stajf'.''''  This  staff  of  Jacob's,  which 
is  quite  unimportant  to  the  coherence  of 
the  story,  represents  a  distinct  motif.  In 
the  tradition  which  is  the  foundation 
of  Heb.  xi.  21,  special  iniportance  is 
attached  to  it. 

>i<  Jacob,  hke  Abraham,  is  founder  of  a 
familv.  His  story  would  therefove  be  en- 
dowed  -with  the  same  motits.  The  emphasis 
of  the  "staff''  corresponds  to  a  moon  motif 
— the  moon  on  the  one  band  being  the 
Wanderer  and  magician  (magic  staff,  see 
p.  114,  i.),  and  on  the  other  band  being  siwimus  deiis,  the  '"'  shepherd  '' 
who  guards  the  sheep.  The  staff  of  Janus  is  of  the  same  iniport- 
ance.- lipon  the  otber  band,  bowever,  the  staff  belongs  to  Orion. 
'l'he  knowledge  of  this  is  still  existent.  The  bngbtest  stars  in 
Orion,  now  called  "the  belt  of  Orion,"  were  called  the  staff.  The 
naming  of  them  as  Jacob's  staff  shows  the  connection  of  Jacob- 
Orion.      Orion  is,  on  one  side,  dragon-slayer,  corresponding  therefore 

1  Hommel  thinks  of  the  quivei-like  shaped  vessel  upon  the  Assyrian  reliefs, 
with  a  sort  of  head  for  Cover,  that  looked  Hke  a  doli,  and  prubably  contained  the 
arrows  for  soothsaying  ;  comp.  G.  Rawlinson,  Five  Great Monarchies,  4thed.,  i.  453. 
We  cannot  accept  Stucken's  deductions,  which  look  upon  the  teraphim  motif  as 
motif  of  the  dragon  combat  {Astrali/iythen,  pp.  15S  f.). 

"  Ovid,  Fast.,  i.  99:  "  iüe  tenens  baculum  dextra  clavemque  sinistra."  For 
Janus-moon  see  Kampf  um  Babel  n.  Bibel,  4th  ed.,  pp.  44  ff. 


Fig.  123. —Assyrian  idol 
for  hoLisehold  use,  from 
Khorsabad  (Louvre). 


58     GLOSSES   ON   HISTORIES  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS 

to  Tammuz,  Osiris,  Ximrod-Gilgamesh,  and  the  Greek  Heracles. 
The  kerykion  in  the  hand  of  Orion  in  the  Egvptian  representa- 
tions  corresponds  to  the  staff;^  the  sceptre  belongs  to  Osiris- 
Orion,  who  as  divinity  of  resurrection  bears  lunar  character  and 
corresponds  to  Orion  as  constellation  of  resurrection  in  the  solar 
m}'th.    '!< 

The  fahles  spin  out  the  story  into  that  of  a  niagic  staff. 
Joseph  possesses  the  stafF.  He  makes  a  present  of  it  to  Jethro- 
Reguel.  It  was  made  of  sapphire,  and  the  unnamable  name  of 
God  was  written  upon  it.  The  statt"  reappears  as  the  magic 
statt"  of  Moses  and  the  blossoming  rod  of  Aaron  ;  see  Beer, 
Lehen  Mosis^  p.  56. 

Jacob'' s  Combat 

Gen.  xxxii.  ]  5-32  :  This  combat  is,  in  the  mind  of  the 
chronicler,  an  actual  physical  occurrence,  for  Jacob,  ver.  32, 
really  limped  after  it.  Originally  it  would  have  been  a  dream 
(like  Jacob's  ladder)  which  is  connected  with  the  religious 
presentment  of  a  fervent  wrestling  in  prayer.- 

Behind  this  story  of  a  dream,  however,  are  hidden  the  motifs 
of  a  cosmic  myth,  which  are  bestowed  upon  Jacob  as  the  bringer 
of a  new  age.  Jacob  wrestles  "with  someone"  (xxxii.  24,  the 
chronicler  dare  not  say  that  it  was  Yahveh  Himself)  and  con- 
([uers.'^  The  object  of  the  combat  and  reward  of  victory  is  the 
secret  name,  which  guarantees  to  Jacob  power  and  sovereignty 

^  For  OrionTanimuz  as  star  of  resurrection  see  the  astral  motifs  in  the  story  of 
Abraham,  p.  2i.  Upon  Gilgamesh- Heracles  compare  hdiibar-Nimivd,  pp.  70  ff. 
Upon  the  foUowing  compare  BoU,  Splutra,  167,  and  to  that  Winckler,  O.L.Z., 
1904,  pr.  loi,  previously  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  82,  92.  On  Germanic  ground  the  change 
of  the  royal  sceptre  from  the  long  staff  (=shepherd's  staff)  to  the  kerykion  (short 
sceptre)  is  likewise  to  be  noted.  It  corresponds  to  the  Oriental  conception  that 
the  king  is  "  shepherd  "  (;v'?<) ;  he  is  thus  named  in  Babylonian  as  in  Biblical  texts. 

2  W.  H.  Koscher,  "  Ephialtes,"  ^M.  der  Kgl.  Sacks.  Gesellschafi  der  IVisscn- 
schaßen,  fhil.  hist.  KL,  xx.,  has  pointed  out  that  the  dream  bears  all  the  signs  of 
nightmare :  the  wrestling  by  night  tili  the  break  of  day,  the  refusal  of  the  name, 
Ihe  shrinking  (laming)  of  the  sinew  of  the  thigh,  the  promised  blessing  (according 
to  Deut.  vii.  13  f.  it  consisted  in  fruitfulness,  wealth,  health,  and  victory). 
Besides,  a  nightmare  is  often  so  vivid  that  it  is  confused  with  waking  events. 
Modern  examples  are  known  to  every  doctor,  Ancient  examples  are  given  by 
Roächer,  I.e.,  pp.  40,  45  f. 

'  "And  yet  escaped  with  his  life"  is  an  addition  of  the  chronicler,  who  no 
longer  understood  the  meaning.  Comp.  Hosea  xii.  4  ff.,  where  the  original 
meaning  is  certainly  that  "he  fought  against  the  angel  and  prevailed  ;  he  (the 
angcl)  wept  and  prayed  for  mercy."     Thus  also  Ed.  Meyer,  see  11.  5,  p.  59. 


JACOB^S   COMBAT  59 

in  the  new  age.^  The  place  of  combat  is  the  ford,  which 
corresponds  cosmically  to  the  decisive  Nibiru  point,  to  the 
victoiy  point  of  the  warrior  Ninib  (see  p.  22,  i.).-  In  ver.  30 
the  combat  for  the  name  is  still  clearly  recognisable.  Jacob 
demands  the  name,  and  the  Opponent  answers  evasively. 
Already  our  chronicler  suggests  the  ingenious  change  of  mean- 
ino-  which  sives  Jacob  the  new  name  ^  and  blesses  hira.  A 
companion  passage  to  this  is  the  combat  of  Moses,  recorded 
by  the  ancient  passage  in  Deut,  xxxiii.  8  ff.,  where  the 
meaning  is  still  more  clearly  to  be  seen.  Moses  strove  at 
Kadesh  with  God,  and  prevailed.^  The  object  of  the  combat 
and  victory  are  here  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  which  are, 
according  to  the  sense,  identical  with  the  "  name."  Both  give 
power  over  Fate,  rulership  of  the  world.'  Jacob  conquered 
elohini  and  'anashhn,  gods  and  men  ;  Gen.  xxxii.  29.  He  is  like 
to  a  shaj-  iläni,  a  vmshte.slür  temshet'i  and  mushtesMr  ilän'i,  like 
the  victorious  Shamash.*" 

Gen.  xxxiii.  3  :  Jacob  bows  himself  seven  times,  acknowledg- 
ing  him  as  lord  ;  see  p.  33.' 

1  Upon  the  name  as  reward  of  victory,  see  B./V.  7'.,  io6  f. 

2  The  myth  of  the  Sphinx  has  the  same  meaning,  the  meeting  of  the  demon  in 
the  mid-day  heat,  who  asks  the  fatal  question,  the  forest  woman  of  the  Lithuanian 
myths,  etc.  The  yet  unexplained  motif  of  lameness  belongs  to  the  Ninib  point  ; 
see  pp.  23,  i.,  31,  i.     Lameness  probably  symbolises  the  solstices. 

'  Upon  the  import  of  the  renaming,  see  B.A\  T.,  J06, 

■*  He  is  endowed  here  also  with  the  motif  of  secret  birth  (without  father,  without 
mother) ;  see  pp.  28  and  91. 

5  Ed.  Meyer,  Die  Israeliten  und  ihre  Nachbarstäiniiie,  likewise  puts  the  two 
combats  together,  without  seeing  the  mythological  connection.  E.  Meyer  adds 
yet  a  third  parallel,  Exod.  iv.  24-26.  Here  the  myth  takes  the  robust  form  of  the 
Yahveh  populär  religion.  It  is  Yahveh  who  is  hit  by  Zipporah's  throw.  The 
Biblical  chronicler  has  touched  up  the  occurrence.  Compare  now  my  essay, 
"  Urim  and  Thummim,"  in  Hilprecht's  anniversary  volume,  pp.  223  ff. 

"  There  are  other  analogies  to  be  noted,  like  the  battle  between  gods  and  heroes 
in  Homer,  Iliad,  iii.  125  ff.,  v.  308  ff.,  330  ;  similarly  the  fable  of  Hercules  as  in 
Nunnus,  Dionysiaca,  x.  376,  where  Hercules  fights  with  Jupiter,  who  cannot  over- 
come  him  and  finally  makes  himself  known  ;  or  in  Pausanias,  iii.  9,  7,  where 
Hercules  is  wounded  in  the  thigh  in  the  fight  with  Hippocoon  (Movers,  Phönizien, 

i-  433  f-  )■ 

■  Gunkel,  I.e.,  finds  it  comic.  "  We  must  laugh  "  (hkewise  at  25a).  Gunkel's 
idea  of  the  Story  of  Jacob  being  a  collection  of  broad  and  comfortable  humorous 
tales  ("  the  fable  laughs  at  the  stupid  Esau,  and  rejoices  over  the  wise  Jacob,"  etc.) 
would  be  changed  b>  the  recognition  of  the  embellishing  motifs. 


60     GLOSSES   ON   HISTORIES  OF  THE  PATRIARCHS 

^  Gen.  xxxiv.  25-31.  In  the  relationship  of  Dinah  to  the 
t\vins(see  Gen.  xlix),  Simeon  and  Levi,  who  avenged  the  wronged 
sister,  sounds  the  motif  of  the  Dioscuri.^  As  it  appears,  there 
seems  to  have  been  a  tradition  in  which  Jacob  had  these  three 
children  only.  It  would  then,  in  its  original  form,  have  shown 
the  motif  clearest,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  editor  of  the 
story  before  us  still  knew  it.  In  this  motif  Helena,  sister  of 
Castor  and  Pollux,  corresponds  to  Dinah.  As  these  rescued 
their  sister  out  of  the  stronghold  of  Aphidna,  so  Simeon  and 
Levi  revenge  the  rape  and  humiliation  of  Dinah.-  ^ 

Gen.  XXXV.  23  ;  see  p.  44-. 

Gen.  xxxvi.  1  ff.  :  Edom,  Esau,  dwelt  in  Se'ir,  the  hill 
country  southward  from  Judah  (xxxii.  3,  comp,  xxxvi.  8),  and 
is  held  as  father  of  the  Edomite  tribes  :  see  p.  51. 

The  Edomites,^  Assyrian  Udiimu,  in  historical  times  have  their 
seat  in  the  mountains  of  Se'ir,  from  whence,  according  to  Gen. 
xxxvi.  20_,  they  drove  out  the  original  inhabitants.  Se'^irites  were 
mentioned  under  Rameses  III. 

Gen.  xxxvi.  31  ff.  names  a  Hst  of  eight  kings  %vho  had  lived 
before  Israel  became  a  kingdom.  1  Kings  xi.  l-i  ff.  records  the 
victory  of  David  over  the  "'Edomite"  king  Hadad  in  the  valley  of 
Salt  (comp.  Ps.  Ix.),  who  is  also  named  in  the  Hst  of  kings,'  and  the 

^  To  sun  and  moon  (Dioscuri)  Venus  is  added  as  third  star.  They  are  the 
rulers  of  the  zodiac  and  as  such  represent  the  new  age.  The  Queen  of  Heaven,  who 
bears  the  child  of  the  sun  (Rev.  xii.),  is  therefore  clothed  with  the  sun  and  has  the 
moon  under  her  feet ;  upon  the  triad,  see  pp.  86,  i.  ff.  The  new  age  is  inaugurated 
with  the  motif  of  the  ravished  and  humiUated  sister.  This  strife  has  the  same 
meaning  as  the  battle  of  the  giants,  and  the  battle  against  five  kings  (Epagomens),  it 
is  the  battle  of  the  new  age  with  winter  ;  see  pp.  94,  i. ,  42,  n.  i.  The  best-known 
examples  of  this  inauguration  motif  are  Valerius  and  Horatius  and  Virginia  (Virgo, 
maiden  motif  in  the  name),  and  Harmodios  and  Aristogeiton  with  their  sister 
(see  Mücke,  l''o>/i  Etiphrat  zum  Tiber,  p.  5).     Another  example  p.  63. 

-  See  Stucken,  Astralinythen,  75,  n.  2,  144  f.  Sichern  and  Chemor  correspond 
to  the  ravishers.  Stucken  has  shown  in  a  surprising  way  how  the  whole  story  is 
permeated  with  the  motifs.  Theseus,  who  corresponds  to  Sichern,  is  dragon- 
slayer.  The  maiden  (the  allotted  daughter  of  the  king,  see  B.N.  T.,  38)  is  promised 
to  the  dragon-slayer.  A  condition  is  the  showing  parts  of  the  members  cut  off 
(this  is,  requisition  of  circumcision)  The  maiden  is  then  still  denied.  The  dragon- 
slayer  takeshis  reward  by  force.  It  might  also  be  said  here  that  it  was  accidental. 
But  the  art  of  the  chronicler  lies  in  indicating  how  everything  agrees. 

■*  See  the  exhaustive  treatment  in  Buhl,  Edoniiter,  Leipzig,  1893  !  Baudissin, 
R.P.Th.,  3rd  ed.  ;  Winckler,  Gesch.  Ist:,  i.  189  ff.  ;  Noeldeke  in  Eiicy.  Bibl. 

*  I  Sam.  xiv.  47  should  be  read  Aram  instead  of  Edom ;  see  Winckler, 
I.e.,  143.  193- 


THE   EDOMITES  qi 

massaci-e  of  "  all  the  males  in  Edom."  Solomon  also  had  Edom  in  his 
power  (1  Kings  ix.  26),  and  tbr  two  hundred  years  it  was  a  province 
ot  Jiidah.  It  was  from  a  relisfious  point  of  view  also  an  iniportant 
possession,  for  Sinai  was  situated  in  the  territory  of  Edom:  see 
p.  98.  Lnder  Joram,  about  850,  Edom  became  again,  accordino- 
to  2  KmgH  viii.  20,  an  independent  kinodom.  Tiglathpileser  Ilf 
names  in  733,  upon  the  clay  tablets  of''Nimrod,  a  prince  Qaush- 
malak  of  Edom  together  with  Ahaz  of  Judah.  Arnos  teils  of  the 
enmity  of  Edom  to  Judah.  Later,  as  the  power  of  Judah  waned 
this  enmity  became  fatal.  In  the  year  701  Sennacherib  names 
amongst  the  tributaries  in  his  campaiffn  against 
Jerusalem,  Ai-rammu,  king  of  Edom  (K^T.,  p.  44). 
Esarhaddon  and  Assurbanipal  name,  together  witli 
Manasseh  of  Judah,  Qaush-gabri  of  Edom  amongst 
the  twenty-two  princes  of  the  Westland  who  were 
forced  to  supply  men  and  give  compulsory  work  in 
the  Egyptian  cam])aigns. 

In  the  campaign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  against 
Jerusalem,  Edom,  like  Moab  and  Amnion,  joined 
the  Babylonians,  and  revenged  itself  upon  Judah 
(comp.  Ezek.  xxv.  13  ff.,  Ps.  cxxxvii.  ;  see  Obadiah's 
"flying  leaf  against  Edom").  The  further  fate  of 
the  Edomites  is  still  dark.  In  any  case,  they 
were  absorbed  by  Arabian  powers  (kingdoni  of 
the  Xabataeans). 


Of  the  civilisation  of  the  Edomites  we  know  ^^°-  124.— Ishtar 
uut  little.  They  ranked  amongst  the  wise  (Obad.  foddes's  ^^°rrf 
viu.;  Jer.  xlix.  7;  Ba.  iii.   22  f.).   In  order  to  judge    aovered'in  Baby- 


ot  the  rehgion  of  the  Edomites  we  may  refer  to  Ion.  (Layard, 
the  theophoric  names.  The  names  Hadad  and  Ai  ^^ineveh  and 
agree  with  the  "  Canaanite  "  religion  sketched  pp.  lt^^%]  ^"'"'P- 
4,  i.  and  124,  i.  Josephus,  Ant,  xv.  7,  9,  names  Ko^  Jer.  vü.  i's. ''°™''" 
or  Kw^at  as  god  of  the  Edomites.  The  Storm-god 
Qosh  (bow)  or  Quzah  was  certainly  their  national  divinity ;  see 
KA.T.,  3rd  ed.,  472  f.  Hommel,  G.G.G.,  pp.  89  and  l65,  holds 
this  god  to  be  also  a  "moon-god."  We  may  rather  think  of  a 
form  of  the  Storm-god  Adad,  who,  however,  naturally  may 
equally  bear  hinar  character  (specially  the  waning  mooii  ;  see 
Hommel,  I.e.,  n.  1). 

>!<  Gen.  xxxviii.  14  ff.  :  1  Taniar  acts  as  a  harlot.  Consciously 
or  unconsciously  the  expressions  and  the  customs  are  taken  from 
the  Oriental  cult  of  Ishtar.'-^     Tamar  is  called  Qedesha  (Assyrian 

1  Judah  gives  ring  and  staff  as  hostage.  These  are  the  tokens  of  lordship  of  the 
man.  Many  Babylonian  statues  of  gods  (for  example,  fig.  132)  show  the  ring  and 
staff.  The  shepherd's  staff  {shiblru)  belongs  to  the  Royal  insignia,  which  lie 
ready  with  Anu  for  the  future  king  (myth  of  Etana). 

-  Upon  the  Ishtar-Ashera  cult  in  Canaan,  seepp.  344,  i.,  349,  i.  f. ;  upon  the  Baby- 
lonian Ishtar  cult,  pp.  117,  i.  ff.     Upon  the  veilof  Ishtar,  see  p.  i2T,  i.,n.  i.     Fig.  41 


62     GLOSSES   ON   HISTORIES  OF  THE  PATRIA RCHS 

Qadishtu);  that  is,  properly  speaking,  "  the  consecrated,"  the 
teiiiple  prostitute,  then  whore.  The  correspondin«^  masculine  fi<iure 
is,  for  example,  1  Kings  xiv.  2-i!.  The  names  Qadesh  and  Qedesh 
(sanctuai-y  ?)  may  be  held  as  evidence  of  the  similar  Oriental  cult 
in  Canaan  in  the  pre-IsvaeHte  period.'  In  Babylonian  qadishtu, 
Hke  shamhdtu,  harivitu  ("  the  ensnared "  ?)  also  chieHy  means 
'•'consecrated  to  the  service  of  Ishtar''  (also  Ishtaritum  with 
divine  determinative  IV.  R.  50,  4i«)  ;  secondarily  it  means  the  street 
women.  The  symbol  of  Ishtar  is  the  veil.  It  belongs,  therefore, 
to  the  cult  and  to  maidenhood,  since  in  the  East  everything  was 
brought  into  relationship  to  religion-  The  divine  sea-maiden 
Sabitu  in  the  epic  of  Gilgamesh  is  also  a  veiled  Ishtar.  Rebekah 
wrapped  herseif  in  her  veil,  when  the  bridegroom  approached ; 
Gen.  xxiv.  Qo,  see  p.  51.  Ruth  veiled  herseif  when  she  went  to 
Boaz.  This  did  not  mean  in  order  that  she  should  not  be  seen ; 
for  that  it  would  have  been  sufficient  tliat  she  went  by  night.^ 
Stucken,  Astrabnythen,  l6,  draws  attention  to  a  further  very  remark- 
able  reminiscence  of  the  Ishtar  myth  in  the  story  of  Tamar ; 
Gen.   xxxviii.    14  ff.      It  is  said  of  Ishtar   that   she   destroyed   her 

shows  the  Ashera  statue  discovered  by  Oppenheim  at  the  Well  of  Chaljiir,  which 
represents  a  marble  column  ending  in  a  veiled  head  of  Ishtar.  This  is  the  Solution 
of  the  riddle  why  Ashera  sometimes  appears  as  a  post  and  then  again  as  a  goddess. 
Fig.  124  is  an  Ishtar  type  discovered  in  Babylon,  like  fig.  38,  p.  118. 

1  Comp.  Ashtoroth-'Ashtarte  (i  Kings  xi.  5  and  33  ;  comp.  2  Kings  xxiii.  13) 
of  the  Phoenicians,  like  i  Sam.  xxxi.  10  of  the  Philistines.  Zimmern,  A'.A.T., 
3rd  ed.,  437,  comp.  436,  speaks  of  "  eventual  Babylonian  origin."  This  illus- 
trates  the  difference  of  our  views.  The  worship  of  Ishtar  was  cultivated  through- 
out  the  entire  Ancient-East.  Only  the  forms  of  the  cult  varied.  In  cur  case,  we 
would  rather  take  it  the  contrary  way,  that  in  Babylonia  a  "  Canaanite  "  Ishtar 
cult  (see  p.  120,  i.,  n.  i),  emphasising  the  double  character  (life  and  death),  influ- 
enced  an  originally  otherwise  formed  proto-Babylonian  Ishtar  cult. 

2  Megilla,  10*^,  says  :  Tamar  was  always  veiled  in  the  house  of  her  father-in-law. 
Beresh.  R.  38.  14:  Two  women  wrapped  themselves  in  veils  and  bore  twins  : 
Rebekah  and  Tamar  (the  addition  :  "  if  she  were  a  prostitute,  then  she  would 
Cover  her  face,"  is  a  Bowdlerism).  Sota,  loa-i^ .  she  was  looked  upon  as  a  prosti- 
tute, because  she  veiled  her  face  in  the  house  of  her  father-in-law. 

^  Unveiling  signifies  marriage  (motif  of  knowing),  but  "  knowing"  and  marriage 
is  the  death  motif.  We  may  realise  this  from  fig.  14  f.  The  unveiling  of  the 
Statue  at  Sais  brings  death.  Ishtar,  descending  into  the  Underworld,  lays  aside 
her  garments.  Haggag,  the  conqueror  of  Mecca,  who  defeats  the  anti-king  of 
the  Omäyyads,  has  himself  praised  as  "  Son  of  the  break  of  day "  (Tammuz, 
masculine  correspondence  to  Ishtar),  and  says:  "When  I  raise  the  veil,  ye  will 
know  nie"  (Winckler,  AI.V.A.G.,  1901,  303  f.).  In  Islamic  fables  the  "man 
who  makes  veils"  {dhfl-  l-liinu'ir),  also  plays  a  part.  Also  the  hiding  of  the 
face  of  Moses  (unveiling  would  have  meant  death),  Exod.  xxxiv.  33  fT.,  belongs 
in  this  connection.  When,  besides,  the  Vulgate  translates  coniulus  (the  "  horned 
Moses"  of  Michael  Angelo),  another  "  mythological"  feature  is  brought  into 
the  presentment :  the  translator  Hieronymus  must  have  known  that  the  "horns" 
are  the  Ancient-Oriental  symbol  of  divinity.     See  further,  E.\od.  xxxiv.  33  and  35. 


MOTIFS   IN   THE   STORY   OF   TAMAR  63 

lovers  (epic  of  Nimrod,  VIth  tablet).'  Tamaras  love  lost  the  lives  of 
two  brothers,  Er  and  Onan.  The  father-in-law  will  not  give  the 
third  "lest  he  also  die  like  his  brethren."  Also  Dinah,  sister  of 
the  "  Dioscuvi  "  Simeon  and  Levi  (Gen.  xxxiv.,  see  p.  60),  brings 
death  to  her  husband.  With  this  compare  Tobit  iii.  8^  where  Sarah 
(sharratu;  that  is,  Ishtar  !),  Ragiiel's  daughter,  is  taunted  :  "  Thou 
art  she  that  killeth  her  husbands  I  "  - 

Also  the  other  Tamar,  whose  relations  with  her  brother  are  told, 
2  Sam.  xiii.,  is  endowed  by  the  chronicler  with  the  featiires  of 
Ishtar.  Her  brothers  are  Amnon  and  Absalom.  The  wronged 
sister  is  rev-enged  by  one  of  them.  The  motif  of  the  Dioscuri  who 
avenge  their  sister,  as  \ve  found  in  the  Simeon-Levi-Dinah  story 
(p.  60),  is  here  mixed  with  the  other  motif  of  the  slaying  of  one 
Dioscuros  by  the  other  (inimical  brothers).  The  "  wise  man " 
(Jiakäni)  Jonadab,  who  appears  as  adviser,  and  advised  Amnon, 
'•'  who  made  himself  sick  because  of  his  sister  Tamar  (she  was 
'^virgin,'  vii-go;  see  p.  60),"  to  feign  himself  sick,  in  order  to  see 
the  sister  alone,  is  the  physician  (Jiaiävi)  in  the  corresponding 
Arabian  tale.  Winckler,  Ex  or.  Lux,  i.,  has  shown  how  the  stories 
in  their  motifs  agree  feature  for  featiire  with  the  love-story  of 
Antiochus  and  his  stepmother  Stratoniee  (  =  Ishtar,  p.  ^Q).  As 
food  the  well-known  mythological  cakes  are  chosen,  the  cakes  of 
Ishtar.'^  A  later  editor  has  not  understood  that,  or  has  suppressed 
it.  In  the  passages  vv.  8  and  10  the  text  is  mutilated.  The 
chronicler  has  secreted  another  "hint"  in  the  garment,  ver.  18  :  she 
wore  a  ketonet  pasmn^  This  is  the  expression  that  is  only  used 
for  the  garment  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xxxvii.  ;  see  p.  66),  whose  stoiy  is 
interwoven  with  the  features  of  Tammuz.  In  the  composition 
before  us  the  end  of  the  story  is  missing  :  i.e.  the  secret  birth  of 
the  child.^i^ 

^  Compare  Ihe  legend  of  Semiramis,  further  of  Roxana,  Rhea,  and  Zenobia, 
The  knight  Bluebeard  is  the  masculine  correspondence. 

-  Here  Asmodaeus  works  the  charm.  The  Rabbinical  fable  makes  Raguel,  the 
father-in-law  of  Moses,  into  a  Bluebeard,  who  tries  all  the  wooers  at  a  free  and 
devours  them  (see  Beer,  Leben  Mosis). 

^  See  Jer.  vii.  iS,  comp.  xliv.  19  :  the  cakes  for  ihe  Queen  of  Heaven,  i.e. 
Ishtar. 

■^  An  anliquarian  gloss  adds  to  this:  this  was  "  from  of  old "  the  maiden 
garment  of  princesses.  Comp.  Song  of  Solornon  v.  3,  the  garment  of  the  beloved 
("I  have  put  off  my  garment,  shall  I  put  it  on  again?" — Ishtar  niotiQ.  Also 
this  garment  is  certainly  to  be  understood  as  a  veil-like  cloak. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

THE    STOKY    OF    JOSEPH 

(Gen.  xxxvii-1) 

>fi  The  Tammuz  Motif  in  the  Story  of  Joseph 

Destinv  takes  Joseph  into  Egypt,  therefore  into  cosniic  Underworld 
geography  (see  p.  30,  i.  ;  20).  In  the  Southland  he  is  thrown  into 
the  pit,  in  Egypt  into  prison.  Thence  he  rises  as  benefactor  of  his 
people.  His  deliverance  appears  as  a  rescue  out  of  the  Underworld, 
as  later  the  deliverance  out  of  Egypt  by  Moses  appears  as  a  strife 
with  and  victory  over  the  power  of  the  Underworld  (dragon, 
Rahab  !).  The  story  of  Joseph  is  for  this  reason  endowed  Avith  the 
motifs  of  the  myth  of  Tammuz,  who  descends  into  the  Underworld, 
then  to  ascend  again  as  Bringer  of  the  New  Age.^  Play  of  words 
and  emphasis  of  certain  features  and  events  all  allude  to  Tammuz. 
VVe  find  such  allusions  in  the  following  features  :-  — 

1.  To  Joseph 's  first  dream,  corresponding  to  the  occupation  of 
the  brothers  (Gen.  xxxvii.  6  ff.,  E  :  the  sheaves  of  the  brothers  bow 
themselves  before  Joseph's  sheaf),  is  added  a  mystic  star  dream  : 
sun,  moon,  and  eleven  kokobwi  (the  eleven  constellations  of  the 
zodiac  2)  bow  before  him.  Tammuz  is  the  representative  of  the 
complete,  ever-rolling  cycle  of  the  zodiac.  Before  him  the  sun, 
moon,  and  other  eleven  bow  themselves.  Nork  in  his  Elias,  47  f., 
has  already  noted  the  connection.* 

^  Comp.  pp.  loo,  i. ;  20  ft".  We  shall  speak  later  of  the  idea  of  the  deliverer, 
which  is  connected  with  this,  at  p.  67. 

2  See  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  67  ff.  The  reader  will  note  where  we  differ, 
and  cur  Supplements. 

^  Are  there  eleven,  because  the  twelfth  hides  itself  behind  the  sun  ?  Or  did 
they  only  reckon  eleven  (Sagittarius  and  Scorpio  are  one  ;  see  Izdubar-Nimrod,  52, 
and  compare  the  picture,  fig.  2,  second  row  from  the  bottom)?  Marduk  has  the 
number  eleven  as  conqueror  of  Tiamat  and  her  eleven  helpers.  The  eleven 
monsters  of  chaos  of  the  ancient  system  are  the  eleven  signs  of  the  zodiac  of  the 
new  System  ruled  by  Marduk.  Compare  with  this  also  Hommel,  Attfs.  ti.  Abk., 
406,  n.  I. 

■*  A  later  critic  remarks  ironically :  "  Since,  however,  Tammuz  is  supposed  to 
be  the  sun,  he  bows,  therefore,  before  himself."    Tammuz  is  not  the  sun.     As 

64 


ASTRAL   MOTIFS   IN   THE    STORY   OF   JOSEPH      65 

2.  Joseph  is  thrown  into  the  pit  (xxxvii.  24  ff.,  E).  The  pit  was 
held  to  be  the  entrance  to  the  Underworld.  Comp.  Ps.  Ixix.  l6; 
Rev.  ix.  1  ff.,  where  the  figure  of  speech  is  particularly  clearly  used 
of  the  Star  faUing  into  the  pit  of  the  abyss  (Attar-Tammuz  as 
evening  star).  With  bor  =  Underworld  compare  also  Erubim  1 9a,  and 
the  corresponding  feature  in  fairv  stories  of  Eastern  orio-in:'  the 
well  leading  into  the  Underworld.i  The  Testaments  of  the  Patri- 
arehs recognise  the  Tammuz  motif  When  Test.  Seb.  says  that 
Joseph  was  three  days  in  the  pit,  it  corresponds  to  the  rammuz 
moon-motif  (three  days  in  the  power  of  the  Underworld  in  the 
lunar  cycle,  then  ascending  again,  see  pp.  35,  i.  f.).  What  three  days 
signify  ni  the  lunar  cycle,  is  in  the  solar  cycle  three  months  and 
five  days  (winter  quarter  including  the  five  epagomens,  brincrino-  up 
360  to  365),  see  pp.  42,  n.  l  ;  60,  n.  1  ;  93;'  i.  This  motff  is 
recognisecl  ni  Test.  Jos.  ii.,  which  says  that  Joseph  was  three 
months  and  five  days  with  the  slave-dealers.  The  sojourn  with 
the  slave-dealers  (imprisonment,  see  following  point)  is  held  to  be 
a  tarrying  in  the  Underworld.- 

3.  Joseph  is  imprisoned,  xxxix.  20  ff.  The  prison  is  likewise 
the  Underworld.  In  the  Assyrian  penitential  psalms  prison  is  the 
figure  for  the  anguish  of  death  (see  for  example  p.  229,  i.) ;  the  one 
released  from  prison  rose  by  the  scent  of  the  plant  of  life  out  of  the 
Underworld  (see  for  example  p.  215,  i.).  Rev.  xx.  7,  comp.  ver.  3 
the  abyss  is  equivalent  to  prison,  and  in  1  Pet.  iii.  19  Christ 
descends  into  "prison"  to  preach  to  the  dead.  But  the  course  of 
the  Story  shows  yet  further  reseniblances. 

The  two  fellow-prisoners,  the  chief  baker  and  the  chief  butler, 
of  whom  one  is  good  and  one  is  evil,  also  belong  to  Tammuz  in  the 
Underworld.  They  correspond  to  the  two  ministers  of  Marduk- 
Adapa  ("  What  does  my  Lord  eat .'  "  "  What  does  my  Lord  drink  ?  " 
see  pp.  60,  i.  ;  183,  i.),  and,  in  the  mocking  of  the  king  of  the  year, 
to  the  two  malefactors  hanged  with  him,  see  B.N.T.,  20  f 

representative  of  the  cycle  he  bears  either  sun,  moon,  or  Ishtar  character ;  see 
pp.  86,  i.  ;  125,  i.  Without  a  knowledge  of  the  Ancient-Oriental  teaching  criticism 
IS  fatal.  The  elimination  of  the  sun  in  Winckler,  /oc.  cit.,  70  (because  of  the 
night)  is  unnecessary. 

^  Compare  also  Gunkel,  5<r/w;^/^;/^z/«t/ CZißöj-,  214,  n.  t.  A  variant  o,  the  well 
is  the  pits,  in  which,  for  example,  the  five  kings  fall,  in  the  vale  of  demons 
(Gen.  xiv.  10  f.  ;  see  p.  26).  In  the  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead  (see  Erman,  Äo-. 
ReL,  ii.),  the  dead,  the  inhabitants  of  the  caves  (!)  greet  Osiiis  upon  his  nightty 
journey  (Osiris  as  the  "  Man  in  the  Moon  "). 

-  Other  evidences  that  late  Judaism  still  knew  the  motifs  are  to  be  found  in 
Rosh  ha-shanah,  10^ :  Joseph's  birth  is  announced  to  Rachel  on  New  Year's  Day  ; 
Jubil.  xxviii.  2,  the  ist  of  Tammuz  is  the  birthday  of  Joseph.  Also  the  blessing  in 
Deut,  xxxiii.  is  füll  of  mythological  allusions.  In  the  Testament  of  the  twelve 
Patriarchs  it  is  said  in  Naphtali  (Kautzsch,  p.  487)  that  Joseph  ascended  on  high 
upon  a  winged  bull  (comp.  Deut,  xxxiii.  17).  Is  this  an  allusion  to  Marduk- 
Tammuz?     We  may  compare  the  bull  as  symbol  of  Oäiris-Tammuz. 

VOL.    II.  5 


66  THE   STORY   OF  JOSEPH 

-i.  The  "gay  coat "  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xxxvii.  3,  23,  32  ff.)  is 
designated  by  the  motif  word  kelonet  passim,  -which  only  once 
again  in  2  Sam.  xiii.  18  f.  appears  as  designation  of  the  garment  of 
Tamar,  who  bears  the  Ishtar  character ;  see  p.  63  and  n.  4.  The 
brothers  conspire  togethei*  (xxxvii.  20)  :  "  we  will  say,  An  evil  beast 
hath  devoured  him."  They  dip  the  coat  in  blood  and  send  it  to 
theiv  father.  Jacob  cries  :  "  A  wild  beast  hath  devoured  him  ;  yea, 
yea,  Joseph  is  torn  in  pieces."  The  rhythmic  words  emphasised  corre- 
spond  to  the  lament  over  Tammuz,  slain  by  the  boar.i  Joseph 
is  teripha,  that  is  the  expvession  for  the  boar  sacred  to  Tammuz 
and  therefore  (I)  forbidden  as  food.  Ver.  35  :  Jacob  Mould  descend 
into  the  Underwovld  to  his  son.  According  to  Jubil.  xxxiv.  12  ff., 
on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  nionth  (month  of  Tammuz)  a 
yearly  lamentation  is  celebrated  for  him. 

5.  The  beautiful  youth  Joseph  (comp.  Jubil.  xxxix.  5)  is  tempted 
by  Potiphar's  wife  (xxxix.  6  ff.,  E).  She  retains  the  garment  in 
her  hand,  when  Joseph  refuses  to  yield  to  her  wishes,  and  revenges 
herseif  for  her  rejected  love."^  The  story  contains  motifs  which 
characterise  Joseph  as  Tammuz  :  the  beaut}'  of  thehero  (ver.  7)  and 
the  chastity.  Tammuz  was  desired  by  Ishtar,  and  she  "prepares  for 
him  weeping,"  because  he  rejects  her  wooing.  And  the  hero 
(iilgamesh  who  rejects  her  love,  is  complained  of  to  her  father 
Anu  (tablet  of  Gilgamesh,  VI.).  The  complaint  would  be  the  same 
as  that  of  Potiphar's  wife  :  he  has  forced  me.  Ishtar  revenges 
herseif  for  the  slight  done  to  her. 

6.  In  Egypt  Joseph  weds  the  daughter  of  the  sun-priest  of 
On-Heliopoiis  (xli.  4.5,  E).  This  must  have  seemed  as  a  culmin- 
ating  seal  to  the  chronicler  who  wove  the  Tammuz  motifs  into  the 
story.  Wedding  of  Tumnuz  with  the  daughter  of  the  sun  as 
reward  for  his  Services. 

7.  The  Taurus-Marduk  motif  in  the  blessing  of  Joseph,  Gen. 
xlix. ;  see  p.  81. 

8.  Joseph  and  Benjamin  are  to  each  other  as  Tammuz  and 
Gishzida.  Benjamin  is,  according  to  the  name,  the  man  "  on  the 
right,"  like  Gishzida;  comp.  pp.  126,  i.,  n.  1;  157,  i.,  "•  2.  The 
twelve  sons  correspond  to  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  ;  that  is 
to  say,  to  the  montlis  of  tlie  year,''  and  Benjamin  is  the  twelfth. 

'  Comp.  pp.  96,  i.  ;  125,  i.  f.  ;  141,  i.  The  following  analogies  should  be  noted  : 
— Amongst  the  Siamese  a  giant  clianged  into  a  boar  kills  the  god  of  day.  In  the 
Scandinavian  fable  Odin  is  wounded  by  a  boar  :  from  the  drops  of  blood  grow  the 
spring  flowers. 

'^  Ver,  6  belongs  to  the  Vahvist  tale.  Potiphar  has  gone  upon  a  journey  (ver.  16) 
and  has  only  taken  with  him  the  necessaries  of  life.  The  verse  says  this.  It  is 
during  his  absence  that  the  events  of  the  story  occur.  We  may  find  countless 
analogies  in  the  Thoiisand  aird  One  N'igfits. 

"  The  journeys  of  the  brothers  to  Egypt  are  presented  as  the  descent  of  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac  into  the  Underworld,  comp.  pp.  24,  i. ,  n.  2  ;  30,  i. ,  67  ff.  Each 
time  Joseph  detains  one  with  him.     When  he  detains  the  youngest,  the  cycle  is 


ASTRAL   MOTIFS   IN   THE   STORY    OF  JOSEPH       67 

To  him  therefore  the  five  epagomenae  belong.  For  this  reason  he 
receives  the  five  garments  of  honour  (xlv.  22)  and  receives  five 
times  as  mach  to  eat  as  his  brothers  (xliii.  34). 

9-  It  corresponds  to  the  Tammuz  motifs  in  the  figure  of  Joseph^ 
that  his  two  sons  are  endowed  with  the  motifs  of  the  two  halves  of 
tlie  cycle.  Tliis  is  shown  in  the  Yahvist  story  of  the  exchange. 
Jacob  ci'osses  his  arms  and  places  his  right  band  upon  the  youngest 
and  his  left  upon  the  eldest ;  Gen.  xlviii.  17  ff.  What  this  synibol- 
ises  is  shown  by  the  exchange  of  the  Mavduk  and  Nebo  points 
(spring  new  year  and  autumn  new  year),  pp.  26,  i.  ;  29,  i. 

The  connection  of  Joseph  with  the  Tammuz  motifs  has  yet 
another  special  meaning.  It  characterises  Joseph  as  representative 
of  the  expectation  of  the  Dehverer.     We  may  note  as  follows  : — 

Joseph's  home  is  Sichem^  the  "Medina"  of  Jacob's  companions 
in  exile,  xxxiv.  10  ff.  ;  Hebron  corresponds  to  Mecca.  Baal  berit 
(El-berit)  of  Sichern  (see  p.  26)  is  a  figure  of  Tammuz,  therefore 
representative  of  the  Oriental  expectation  of  the  Deliverer.  The 
name  Shalem  ( =  Sichern,  see  pp.  26,  29)  agrees  with  this.  A 
connection  has  existed  at  all  times  between  the  Ancient-Oriental 
expectation  of  a  Deliverer  and  the  expected  Deliverer  of  the  Yahveh 
religion.^  This  throws  a  light  from  religious  history  upon  the  faet 
that  in  Judges  vi.  24  Gideon  calls  the  altar  Yahveh-Shalem  (see 
Winckler,  F.,  iii.  441).  And  that  thoughts  of  Tammuz  in  the  sense 
of  the  expected  Deliverer  Avere  connected  with  the  person  of  Joseph 
is  shown  by  his  Inirial.  They  put  him  in  a  coffin^  1.  26  {'aroii ;  note 
tliat  the  ark  is  called  by  the  same  word  ;  it  also  bears  Tammuz-Osiris 
connections).  Moses  then  takes  the  coffin  with  the  bones  of  Joseph 
(Exod.  xiii.  19)  that  they  may  be  placed  in  the  Land  of  Promise. 
Joshua  xxiv.  ,32  relates  the  burial  in  Sichem.  Joseph  is  an  Israelite 
figure  of  the  Deliverer — a  type  of  Tammuz^  expressed  by  the 
Ancient-Oi'ient ;  a  type  of  Christ,  expressed  by  the  Christian.-  We 
find  the  same  phenomenon  in  Joshua,  who  likewise  appears  as  a 
saviour,  and  who  is  still  held  as  such  in  Jewish  theology.  In 
Joshua  viii.  10  ff.  (Deut.  xi.  29;  comp,  xxvii.  11  ff.)  he  accomplished 
upon  the  mountains  of  Ebal  and  Gerizim  a  symbolic  action  which 
corresponds  to  the  characteristic  thoughts  of  the  figure  of  Tammuz  : 
six  tribes  stood  upon  Mount  Gerizim,  six  upon  Ebal.  One  half 
represented  the  light  half  of  the  cycle  of  the  universe  (blessing), 
the  other  the  dark  half  (curse),  which  must  suggest  that  the  twelve 
tribes  were  consciously  connected  with  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac ;  see  Gen.  xlix.,  ))p.  77  ff,     But  tlie  Elohist  jilaces  the  cul- 

at  an  end  ;  see  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  62  f.  This  vvould,  therefore,  niean  a 
carrying  on  still  further  the  niotif  announced  by  Joseph's  dream.  Note  also  that 
Joseph  has  seventy-two  successors,  descended  from  five  women.  Leah  has  seven 
children,  Bilhah  and  Zilpah,  the  secondary  wives,  have  five  sons. 

^  In  Egypt  also  ;  see  pp.  89,  n.  2,  100. 

-  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  Jewish  Messiah  ben  Joseph,  in  Opposition  to 
the  Messiah  ben  David.     See  upon  this  previously,  B.N.  T.,  39  flF.,  92. 


68  THE    STORY    OF   JOSEPH 

minating  point  of  his  actions  in  Sichern  ;  Joshua  xxiv.  In  Sichern 
Joshua  places  all  the  tribes  "before  God  "  and  gives  them  "law 
and  justice."  Then  he  erects  a  stone  as  a  memorial  "underthe 
oak  that  was  by  the  sanctuary  of  Yahveh  "  (in  Sichern  !).  ^ 


The  Hebrew  Joseph  ix  Egypt 

The  stories  of  Joseph  and  of  the  Exodus  sliow  pure 
Egyptian  colouring  and  prove  that  the  writer  drew  froni  good 
traditions, 

George  Ebers,  in  Ägypten  und  die  Bücher  Mos'is  (1868),  says  : 
"The  whole  story  of  Joseph  must  be  designated  as  correspond- 
ing  throughout  to  the  true  circumstances  of  ancient  Egypt."" 
J.  Marquart,  Philologm,  vii.  p.  689,  concludes :  "  The  story  of 
Joseph  in  its  original  form  is  to  me  a  new  and  brilhant  proof 
of  the  extreme  age  of  the  chronicle  of  the  older  Elohists." 

Joseph,  hke  Abraham,  is  called  (Gen.  xiv.  13)  "the  Hebrew" 
(xl.  15  ;  xh.  12).  This  is  not  a  "  naive  anachronism,"  but  in 
the  mouth  of  the  Egyptian  it  was  the  designation  for  the 
outlanders,  the  Asiatin  Bedouins,  corresponding  to  the  Habiri 
of  the  Amarna  Letters  ;  see  p.  339,  i. 

Gen.  xxxvii,  28:  ''^  But  there  passed  hij  Mklicuiites,  merchant- 
men ;  and  they  drew  and  Ufted  up  Joseph  out  of  the  pH,  and  led 
him  to  Egypt.""  Thus  the  Elohist.  The  other  source  says  : 
"Ishmaelites  from  Gilead"'';  that  is,  a  general  term  for  the 
Bedouins  from  the  adjoining  lands  east  of  Jordan.  The  Elohist 
calls  the  merchants  Midianites.^ 

The  Midianites  dwelt  in  Tihama  in  the  north,  and  at  the  period 
about  2000-600  b.c.  they  were  the  channel  for  trade  between 
North  Arabia  and  Palestine.  Midianite  appears  to  have  been 
a  ffeneral  term  for  merchant.  But  we  also  know  that  Midian 
would  not  have  been  sharply  distinguished  from  the  adjoining 
Maon.  The  tribes  of  Maon  grew  out  of  trade  colonies  of  the 
South  Arabian  kingdom  of  Maon.  An  exchange  of  Midian 
and  Maon  lies  for  instance  in  Judges  x.  12,  where  the  Ma'onites 
(Minajans)   are    counted    amongst    the    tribes    pressing    upon 

'  Blldinger,  De  colonianim  PhccnidatHDi  piinioidüs,  1892,  sees  in  the  story  a 
reminiscence  of  ihe  captivily  of  the  tribes  of  Joseph,  which  was  brought  about 
vvith  the  help  of  the  Midianites,  who  were  referred  to  as  allies  of  Egypt, 


GLOSSES   TO   THE   STORY   OF  JOSEPH         69 

Israel,  for  which  then  in  the  Sept.  we  read  Madiam  (Midian).^ 
These  "Midianites"  brought  upon  cameis  bv  the  commercial 
road  leading  over  Gaza,  neTi:''6t  (gum  ?  Aquila,  o-Tvpo.^)  and  zeri 
(incense  ?)  and  I6t  (ladanum  ?)  to  Egypt.- 

Glosses  to  the  Story  of  Joseph 

Gen.  xxxix.  6  fF.  :  Joseph  and  Potiphar's  Avife,  see  p.  %6. 
The  d'Orbiney  papyrus  from  the  nineteenth  dynasty  "about  the 
two  brothers  "  relates  a  similar  story.^ 

Gen.  xxxix.  20  :  Joseph  in  prison.  He  is  put  into  the 
bet-hasohar,  the  king's  prison-house.  Since  he  was  not  taken 
inßagranü,  his  life  is  spared,  bat  he  beconies  the  king's  slave 
{amd  .sha ?•}■}).'  Thus  the  Yahvist.  The  other  source  (Elohist) 
has  not  the  story  of  the  temptation.^  Here  Joseph  is  servant 
in  the  house  of  the  mr-tabbahh/t  and  is  in  charge  of  the 
political  prisoners. 

Gen.  xl. :  Joseph  becomes  celebi-ated  by  interpretation  of 
dreams.  He  was  in  fact  already,  according  to  Gen.  xxxvii.  19, 
the  bcral  halomot.  Interpretation  of  dreams  was  in  Babylonia 
(Gudea,  Nabonidus  I),  as  in  Egypt,  of  highest  importance.'^  The 
Chalda;ans  and  Egyptians  are  the  Interpreters  of  dreams  (astro- 

^  See  Hommel,  Altsir.  Uberl.,  271  :  Weber  in  M.  V.A.G.,  1901,  28;  Hubert 
Grimme,  Michauimed,  p.  14. 

-  Glaser  explains  ladanum  as  myrrh.     Compare  vvith  the  wares  of  Pliny,  xii.  54. 

■'  Translated,  for  example,  in  Erman,  Ägypten  und  ägyptisches  Leben  im 
Altertum,  pp.  505  f.  ;  comp.  Stucken,  Astralinytlten,  12S,  159  ff.  Note  the 
mythological  conclusion,  which  surely  gives  the  key  to  the  whole,  and  ought  not 
to  be  put  aside  as  a  recondite  fancy,  as  happens  in  Erman,  It  is  related  here 
(according  to  a  translation  given  by  G.  Steindorff),  that  the  fugitive  met  the 
gods,  who  sympathised  vvith  him.  "The  Sun-god  said  to  Khnum  :  'Make  a 
wife  for  Bala,  that  he  may  not  be  alone.'  Khnum  made  him  a  companion,  whose 
body  was  more  beautiful  than  all  the  women  in  the  whole  land  ;  every  god  was  in 
her.  The  seven  Hathor  goddesses  [comp,  with  this  Erman,  Ag.  Rel.,  p.  82] 
came  to  look  upon  her.  They  said  with  one  mouth  :  '  She  shall  die  a  violent 
death.'  He  loved  her  entirely,  she  dwelt  in  his  house,"  and  so  on.  The  story  of 
the  flight  contains  the  motifs  of  the  three  hindrances  which  detain  the  pursuer,  and 
which  Stucken  has  identified  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

■*  Comp.  H.C.,  129-132.  Winckler,  loc.  cit.,  points  out,  §  129:  "  If  the 
husband  spares  his  wife,  the  king  shall  also  give  the  slave  his  life  ;  but  he  is 
henceforth  the  king's  slave."     Comp.  p.  iio. 

'  The  Yahvist  has  added  the  anecdote  for  the  sake  of  the  motif. 

''  See  Ebers,  Ägypten  und  die  Bticher  Mosis,  pp.  321  f. 


70  THE   STORY    OF   JOSEPH 

logers)  of  antiquity.  Tacitus  says  that  the  Egyptian  priests 
were  interpreters  of  dreams,  and  Herodotus  relates  a  dream  of 
the  priest  Ptah  which  foretold  the  dominion  of  Rameses  II. 
An  inscription  at  Karnak  records  that  Merneptah  I.  had  a  dream 
in  which  he  saw  a  statue  of  Ptah.  The  statue  stood  in  his  way 
and  prevented  him  from  going  with  his  army  against  the  eneniy, 
which  were  pressing  into  Egypt  froni  the  Mediterranean. 

The  dream-books  of  German  fairs  and  markets  witness  to  the 
present  day  that  interpretations  of  dreams  was  specially  held  to 
be  "Egyptian  wisdom."  Lane,  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modern 
Egtjptians,  ii.,  pp.  81  f,  says :  "The  Egyptian  has  great  faith  in 
dreams,  and  often  is  guided  by  them  in  the  most  important  events 
in  life.  They  possess  two  large  and  important  works  upon  the 
interpretation  of  dreams.  These  books  are  consulted  with  absohite 
faith  even  by  many  intellectual  men."  The  "Court  Philosopher" 
sent  by  the  Khedive  in  compHment  to  the  German  Kaiser,  together 
with  his  collection  of  weapons,  in  1896,  to  the  Industrial  Exhibition 
in  Berhn,  was  chiefly  an  interpreter  of  dreams. 

The  coloar  of  the  story  of  the  dream  is  Egyptian.  Ahu,  "  reed- 
orass,"  Gen.  xh.  2,  is  an  Egyptian  natm-ahsed  foreign  word.^ 
VVhen  the  Nile  (designated  as  Yeör,  river  =  Assyrian  Ya'uru ;  the 
Semitic  designation  is  probably  chosen  because  it  sounded  some- 
thing  like  one  of  the  Egyptian  names  for  the  Nile)  -  is  the  source 
of  the  first  dream,  it  is  presupposed  that  the  readers  know  that 
in  that  almost  i'ainless  country  the  Nile  with  its  inundations  is 
like  the  bearer  of  fertility.  "  O  that  the  Nile  may  give  me  meat, 
food,  every  plant  in  its  season,"  says  an  ancient  text.  "  It  is  the 
Nile  which  Supports  all  mankind  with  food  and  nourishment " 
(Erman,  Ägypten,  p.  566).  The  "seven  kine  "  belong  to  mythology. 
According  to  Diodorus  Siculus,  i.  51,  the  heifer  is  the  symbol  of 
the  Nile,  and  is  sacred  to  Osiris,  inventor  of  agriculture  (comp. 
ib.,  i.  21);  comi^.  fig.  154  with  Exod.  32  f.  The  bull  Osiris 
often  appears  in  Company  with  seven  cows,  for  example,  upon  the 
vignettes  of  the  110  chapters  of  the  old  and  the  new  Book  of  the 
Dead.  The  passages  in  the  text  belonging  to  them  })ray  Osiris 
that  either  he  or  the  seven  cows  with  the  bull,  whose  name  he 
knows,  may  nourish  the  suppliant  in  death.  Hut  Osiris  corresponds 
to  Marduk.  Seven  ears  of  corn  which  grow  upon  one  stalk  are 
representable  by  the  Egyptian  wheat  (triücum  compositum).  The 
East  wind,  which  blasts  the  ears,  corresponds  to  the  dreaded 
khamsin,  coming  from  the  desex'ts  of  the  south-east,  and  to  the 
l)resent  day  threatens  Vegetation  from  February  to  June.  With 
the  cows  and  ears  of  Pharaoh's  dream,  compare  also  fig.  154,  p.  148. 

1  See  Ebers,  loc.  cit. ,  338  f. 

^  See  Frdr.  Delitzsch,  Hebrew  Language,  p.  25,  note. 


GLOSSES   TO   THE   STORV    OF  JOSEPH  71 

"  Butler  and  chief  baker  "  appear  as  high  officials.  Egyptian 
literature  repeatedly  names  amongst  the  higher  officials  of  the 
Royal  household  the  "sideboard  writer''  and  the  "preparer  of 
sweets."  In  the  grave  of  Rameses  UI.  was  found  upon  the 
wall  a  representation  of  a  complete  Royal  bakery,^  also  in  the 
excavations  by  the  German  Orientgesellschaft  (see  the  bakery 
in  the  museum  of  the  Leipzig  University).  The  earthly  corre- 
sponds  to  the  heavenly  court,  and  these  two  correspond  to 
the  heavenly  baker  and  cup-bearer ;  see  pp.  60,  i.,  183,  i.  We 
spoke  at  p.  65  of  the  mythological  symbolism  here  woven  into 
the  story. 

Gen.  xli.  14 :  Joseph  shaved  himself,  and  changed  his 
raimeitt,  and  camc  in  unto  Pharaoh.  Shaving,  that  is  to  say, 
of  the  head,  is  Egyptian  etiquette,  biit  is  also  borne  witness 
to  amongst  the  Ancient-Babylonians  by  the  heads  found  at 
Telloh  (see  fig.  84).  It  is  possible  that  the  Assyrian  hair 
arrangements  were  only  wigs.  The  Oriental  of  to-da,y  also 
shaves  his  head.'  The  story  leaves  the  impression  that  divine 
honours  were  given  to  the  Pharaoh. 

Gen.  xli.  29  ff:  The  granaries  in  Egypt  for  the  time  of 
famine.  Similar  events  are  recorded  in  Egyptian  literature  in 
the  following  passages  : — 

1.  On  the  slopes  of  Beni  Hassan  is  found  in  the  inscriptions 
which  Ameni,  an  official  of  the  Pharaoh  Usertesen  I.,  had 
engraved  during  his  lifetime  on  the  entrance  to  his  tomb,  the 
following  record  :  ' 

There  came  years  of  famine.  Then  I  ploughed  all  the  acres  of 
the  "  goat-province  "  (possession  of  the  Ameni)  from  its  southern- 
most  to  its  northevnmost  border.  I  nourished  his  (Usertesen's) 
dependents,  I  looked  after  their  food^  so  that  there  was  none 
liungvy  amongst  them.  I  gave  to  the  widoAv  the  same  as  to  her 
who  had  no  husband,  I  gave  no  preference  to  the  great  ones  over 
the  lesser^  in  what  I  gave  ....  When^  liowever,  great  floods  of 

^  Repioduced,  for  example,  in  Erman,  loc.  cit.,  p.  269. 

-  The  Egyptian  monuments  show  representations  of  a  highly  developed  barber 
craft.  A  very  ancient  poem  names  the  barber,  who  goes  from  street  to  street, 
gathering  news,  as  amongst  the  independent  crafts,  not  as  a  bondman,  and  not  in 
the  Service  of  the  State.  In  the  museunis  we  may  see  razor-blades  very 
artistically  decorated. 

"'  Published  in  Egyptian  E.xploralioii  Fund,  i.  8. 


72  THE   STORY   OF   JOSEPH 

the  Nile  came  which  bring  grain  and  chaff  and  all  possible  other 
thingSj  then  I  did  not  take  the  arrears  from  the  husbandman.' 

2.  The  inscriptions  on  a  tomb  in  El-Kab,  which  concern  a 
certain  Baba  (published  by  Lepsius  in  his  Denkmäler),  say : 

I  collected  the    harvest  as  a  friend    of  the    god  of  harvest.      I 

was  watchful  in   the   time  of  sowing.     When,    however,   years   of 

famine  came,  I  distributed  provision  to  the  city  in  each  year   of 
■want. 

3.  An  Egyptian  famine  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
Century  a.d.  is  described  by  Abdallatif  (de  Sacy,  Abdallatif, 
pp.  360  fF.)  in  all  its  horror.  A  seven-year  famine  is  for  the 
last  time  recoided  in  the  years  1064  to  1071  of  our  calendar, 
during  the  caliphat  of  El-Mustanzir  Billah.- 

Further  examples  are  mentioned  pp.  74  f. 

Joseph  =  Yanhamu  ? 

If,  as  in  the  late  Egyptian  tradition,  Joseph  belong.s  to  the 
time  of  Amenophis  IV.  (compare  the  exchange,  spoken  of  at 
pp.  88  f.,  which  brings  Osarsiph-Joseph  together  with  Moses), 
the  part  played  by  Heliopolis  (On)  in  the  Biblical  story  is 
explained.  According  to  Gen.  xli.  45,  Joseph  was  son-in-law 
of  the  high  priest  of  On.  But  Heliopolis-On,  the  place  where 
the  Sun-god  Ra  was  worshipped,  nnder  the  form  of  the  sun's 
disc  {aten),  was  certainly  the  starting-point  of  the  monotheistic 
reform.  The  name  Potiphar  ("gift  of  the  Sun-god  Ra")  which 
the  high  priest  bears,  in  common  with  Joseph"'s  buyer,  also  may 
be  explained  by  the  aten  cult. 

But  most  chiefly  one  figure  then  becomes  of  great  importance, 
which  is  very  prominent  in  the  table ts  of  Tell-el-Amarna  as  a 
ruler.  This  is  Yanhamu,  governor  of  Yarimuta.  According 
to  the  name,  he  was  Semitic.  In  cosmopolitan  new  kingdoms 
it  is  nothincp  unusual  for  an  outlander  to  attain  to  hio;h 
honour.  Even  if  this  man  is  not  identical  with  the  Joseph 
of  tradition,  as  has  been  surmised,  still  he  offers  an  impor- 
tant  illustration  for  the  Biblical  presentment  of  the  Egyptian 

'  That  is  to  say,  I  did  not  demand  the  rent  in  arrears  in  ihe  years  of  famine. 
-  See  Sayce,  A/ie  Denkmäler,  6o. 


YAN^AMU  73 

Joseph,    and  proves    that    the    milieu    of  the    story    is    purely 
Egyptian.^ 

In  the  letters  of  Rib-Addi  of  Gebal  this  Yanhamu  ruled 
over  the  land  Yarimuta,  which  at  that  time  was  the  grain- 
growing  district  for  the  coasts  of  the  Eastern  Mediterranean. 
According  to  the  letters,  the  land  could  be  reached  from  the 
port  of  Gebal,  and  it  was  necessary  to  touch  upon  it  in  going 
to  the  chief  city  Chut-Aten  ;  therefore  it  must  have  been  in  the 
Delta.-  It  is  possibly  identical  with  the  land  of  Goshen;-^  in 
any  case,  it  was  in  that  neighbourhood.  Yanhamu  is  a  Semitic 
name.  He  was  aware  of  events  in  Canaan  :  the  governor  of 
Jerusalem  once  begs  that  Yanhamu  may  be  sent  there,  to  put 
things  in  order.  In  the  kingdom  of  Egypt  he  ruled,  as  the 
king's  deputy,  with  unlimited  power.  It  depended  upon  him 
whether  the  granaries  should  be  opened.  Silver  and  wood, 
and  youths  and  maidens  too,  must  be  sent,  if  provisions  were 
desired  from  Yarimuta.  We  give  a  few  passages  from  the 
letters,  which  concern  Yanhamu  and  the  grain -Chambers  of 
Yarimuta  : 

In  No.  69  (VViiickler,  Keilinschnfi .  Bihlioth.,  v.)  it  says  :  ''  Yanhamu 
....  took  their  sons  for  silver  .  .  .  .  to  the  land  of  Yarimuta." 
And  previously :  "  VVhat  shall  I  give  my  peasants  to  eat  ?  Their 
sons  are  gone^  their  daughters  and  the  Avoodwork  of  their  houses, 
because  we  were  forced  to  give  them  to  Yarimuta  for  our  life's 
necessities.  Further,  let  the  king  hear  the  words  of  his  faithful 
servants,  and  send  provisions  in  ships  for  the  support  of  his  servants 
and  his  city."  No.  74 :  " ....  all  has  been  given  away  to 
Yarimuta  for  my  life's  necessities."  No.  79  (comp.  No.  69)  :  "  Gone 
are  youths  and  maidens,  and  the  wood  of  the  houses,  because  they 

'  Marquart,  loc.  cit.,  p,  680,  first  eraphatically  drew  attention  to  this.  It  is 
true  he  dravvs  deductions  which  do  not  leave  much  remaining  for  the  historic  core 
of  the  Biblical  tradition.  See  further,  Winckler,  K.A.T.,  yd  ed.,  p.  211,  and 
Abraham  als  Babylonier,  Josef  als  Ägypter. 

-  C.  Niebuhr,  M.V.A.G.,  1S96,  pp.  208  ff.,  decided  the  importance  of 
Yarimuta:  he  identified  it  with  the  wliole  Delta,  which  view  must  naturally  be 
given  up. 

'■'  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  215,  has  made  it  probable  that  the  Biblical  tradition  knew 
this.  Joshua  x.  4i=xii.  ii  names  "the  whole  land  of  Goshen"  amongst  the 
conquests  of  Joshua.  That  is  naturally  an  Interpolation.  But  how  did  it  arise  ? 
Since  in  chap.  x.  the  conquest  of  Yarmuth  is  related,  this  might  give  occasion 
to  a  reader,  knowing  the  importance  of  the  name  Yarimuta  =  Goshen,  to  make 
the  addilion. 


74  THE   STORY   OF  JOSEPH 

were  given  to  Yarimuta  tbr  food  (So.  69  :  for  the  support  of  life)." 
In  Xo.  61  it  is  told  that  a  hostage  sent  by  Rib-Addi  of  Gebal  to 
the  Pharaoh  was  detained  in  the  house  of  the  powerful  Yanharau. 

The  features  of  the  story  of  Joseph  which  teil  of  the  brothers 
detained  as  hostages,  and  the  anxiety  on  account  of  the  bov 
Benjamin,  agree  with  the  contents  of  this  letter.  Gen.  xlvii. 
13  ff.,  the  agrarian  policy  of  Joseph  is  described,  which  strikingly 
recalLs  that  of  Yanhanui. 

The  investiture  of  Joseph,  Gen.  xli.  42  ff.,  like  the  table  customs 
described  in  Gen.  xliii.  32,  is  specially  Egyptian ;  see  Giinkel,  I.e., 
Holzinger,  I.e.  The  names  in  Gen.  xli.  45,  DAV?  n^^V  and  n:pX^ 
ave  both  pure  Egyptian.  The  first  signifies,  according  to  SteindorfF, 
''  God  speaks  and  he  lives  "  ;  the  other  signifies  Xs-nt,  that  is,  those 
belonging  to  the  goddess  Neit  (local  goddess  of  Sais).  According 
to  Spiegelberg,  I.e.,  53,  the  names  Potiphar  and  n;.y3  n3?V  are  not 
in  evidence  before  the  twentieth  dynasty  (1200  b.c.),  bat  certainly 
the  name  n5p5<  is  so. 

Gen.  xliv.  2,  0,  15  :  Joseph's  cup  appears  as  a  magic  cup.^ 
It  is  his  usual  drinking-cup,  but  by  xliv.  15  it  is  presupposed 
that  he  deals  in  the  black  art.- 

The  Sons  of  Jacob  in  Egypt 

We  have  spoken  at  p.  324,  i.  of  the  lively  inteicourse  between 
Syria  and  Egypt.  "The  Princes'  wall"  served  to  keep  off 
uninvited  guests."^  That  in  times  of  famine  Asiatics  sought 
and  found  help  in  Egypt  is  not  seldoni  recorded  in  the  texts 
of  the  new  kingdom  :  * 

1.  In  the  texts  of  Tell-el-Amarna,  Egyptian  granaries  are 
repeatedly  mentioned,  from  which  Canaanite  people  fetched 
Stores;  see  above,  p.  71.  Comp.  Gen.  xli.  54:  "There  was 
famine  in  all  lands,  but  in  all  the  land  of  Egypt  there  was  bread." 

'  See  Dillmann,  loc.  cit.,  and  comp.  Hunger,  "Becherwahrsagung  bei  den 
Babyloniern,"  in  Leipz.  Scinit.  Studien,  i.  I,  p.  4.  The  Gnostic  Naassenes  bring 
the  cup  of  Anacreon  into  connection  with  Joseph's  cup  ;  see  Müller,  System  der 
Kosmologie,  211, 

-  Comp.  Winckler,  Abraham,  als  Babylonier  und  Josef  als  Ägypter,  who,  from 
the  presentment  of  Joseph  as  an  Egyptian,  draws  far-reaching  deductions  upon  the 
meaning  of  the  story. 

^  See  above,  p.  324,  i.  Comp.  Müller,  Asiemmä Europa,  102  ;  Z.D.P.  /'.,  viii. 
217.  Brugsch,  Die  biblischen  sieben  Jahre  der  Hungersnot,  thinks  that  the 
"desert-wall"  {viidbar-sür)  in  Exod.  xv.  22  was  named  after  this  wall. 

^  Upon  the  famines  of  Egypt,  see  p.  72. 


THE   SONS   OF   JACOB    LN   EGYPT  75 

2.  In  a  l'ragment  of  an  address  by  a  high  official  under 
Kharemkheb  (about  1360  b.c.),  it  is  speaking  of  barbarians, 
"  who  know  not  how  to  live '' ;  they  ai'e  gi\en  over  to  the 
imder-officials  with  the  notiflcation  that  they  are  not  to  be 
allowed  out  of  certain  districts. 

3.  In  the  Anastasi  Papyrus,  vi.  4,  14  ff.,  an  Egyptian  official 
records :  "  We  have  allowed  the  Bedouin  tribes  of  Edom  to 
pass  the  fortress  of  Merneptah  to  the  pools  of  Merneptah,  in 
Order  to  support  theniselves  and  their  cattle  upon  the  great 
nieadow-land  of  Pharaoh,  the  lo\ely  sun  of  all  lands.""  ^ 

4.  After  the  conclusion  of  the  political  treaty  between 
Rameses  II.  and  the  Hittites  (p.  329,  i.),  Rameses  sends  ships  to 
them  during  a  calaniity  with  corn  {Mar.  Kam..,  24 ;  see  Erman, 
Ägypten,  p.  707). 

Gen.  xlvi.  34 ;  see  p.  87,  n.  3. 

Gen.  xlvii.  7  f.  The  country  given  to  the  Syrian  shepherds 
was  called,  according  to  the  Yahvist  source,  Goshen.  It  lay 
in  the  Delta.  It  was  fruitful  nieadow-land  (xlvii.  6),  well  suited 
to  the  Hebrew  sheep-breeders  (xlvi.  34).  In  two  passages  of 
the  Yahvist  record  the  Sept.  says,  instead  of  Goshen,  "  district 
of  the  city  of  Goshen  in  Arabia''  (Gen.  xlv.  10,  xlvi.  34). 
This  city  of  Gosheji  has  been  certainly  identified,  through  the 
excavations  of  Naville,  with  the  Egyptian  city  of  Gsm  on  the 
site  of  the  present  Saft  el  Henneh,  eastward  froni  the  brauch 
of  the  Nile  Bubastis,  chief  city  of  the  Egyptian  •'  province  of 
Arabia,''  which  bears  the  religious  nanie  "  province  of  the  god 
Spt,  he  who  slays  the  inhabitants  of  Sinai."  ' 

It  is,  indeed,  not  possible  to  prove  that  the  Goshen  of  the 
Yahvists  is  identical  with  the  Egyptian  Gsm.  But  the  coherence 
of  the  Yahvist  records  points  to  the  same  neighbourhood :  a 
country  in  the  east  of  the  kingdoni,  this  side  of  the  boundary 
fortresses  situated  on  the  isthmus  of  Suez ;  on  the  further  side  of 
them   is  unfertile  desert.^     When  the  P  calls  tlie  neighbourhood 

1  See  Spiegel beiL;,  Der  Aitfeiithalt  Israels  in  Ägypten,  pp.  24  f.  After  a  gap 
there  follow  "the  other  names  of  the  tribes,  which  passed  the  stronghold  of 
Merneptah." 

-  The  name  pveserved  in  the  modern  Saft  ;  see  article  on  Goshen  in  K.P.Th., 
3rd  ed. 

•^  See  under  Yariniuta  =  Goshen,  p.  73. 


76 


THE   STORY   OF  JOSEPH 


the  "  land  of  Rameses "  (Gen.  xlvii.  11),  that  must  be  considered 
like  the  Statement  of  the  Greek  and  Memphite  translation  of 
Gen.  xlvi.  28  :  Pethom,.  a  city  in  the  land  of  Rameses.  These  are 
names  from  the  sphere  of  later  events  (the  oppressed  Hebrews 
built  Pithom  under  Rameses)  broiight  into  the  record  later.  The 
Sept.  names  also  the  meeting-plaee  there,  where  the  Hebrew 
text  of  the  Yahvist  simply  says  Goshen,  Gen.  xlvi.  28  :  "  near  the 
city  of  Heroon  in  the  land   of  Rameses";    whilst  the  Memphite 


Fig.  125, — Store  Chamber  from  Pithom.     (From  Spiegelberg's 
AitfcnthaU  Israels  in  Ägypten.') 

translation  says :  "  to  Pithom,  the  city  in  the  land  of  Rameses/' 
and  in  v.  29,  "in  the  neighboin-hood  of  the  city  Pethom."  By 
the  excavations  of  Ed.  Naville  1  in  Teil  el  Maskhuta  (1883),  it 
has  been  proved  that  these  ruined  cities  situated  near  the 
isthnuis  of  Suez,  in  Wadi  Tumilat,  show  the  jjosition  of  a  city 
whicli  bore  the  religioiis  name  Pr-'tm  (vocalised  by  SteindorfF  as 
something  like  Pi-Atom,  "  House  of  the  God  Atom  "),  and  which 
is  plainly  identical  with  the  city  Pithom  built  by  the  oppressed 
Hebrews  (Exod.  i.  11).  Since  this  Pithom  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Hero,-  this  Statement  of  the  Sept.  agrees  with 
the   Yahvist  on  the    whole,   and   the   meeting-place   of  the   Sept. 

^  Comp.  Naville,  The  Store  City  of  Pithom  and  the  Route  of  Exodus,  London, 
1S88  ;  Steindorff,  article  on  Goshen  in  R.P.  Th.,  yd  ed. 

-  J.  Dillmann,  "  Pithom,  Hero,  Klysma,"  in  the  Records  of  the  Royal  Acadciny 
of  Science,  1885,  x.x.xix. 


SIGNS   OF   THE   ZODIAC   IN   JACOB'S   BLESSING     77 

lies   in   the   distvict,   oi*  in  the   neighbourhood,   of  the   countiy  of 
Goshen,  eastward  of  the  arm  of  the  Nile  Bubastis. 
Gen.  xlvii.  13  ff.  ;  see  pp.  74,  75. 

Gen.  xlvii.  ^9 :  Joseph  swears,  placing  his  band  upon  the 
Organs  of  geueration,  as  Ehezer  does  with  Abraham. 

Gen.  xxiv.  2  f. :  This  form  of  oath  is  to  be  found  amongst 
Arabian  tribes  to  the  present  day.^  In  this  lies  an  evidence  of 
the  sacredness  of  propagation  spoken  of  p.  121,  i.,  n.  2. 

>f^   The  Signs  of  the  Zodiac  in  J.vcob's  Blessing 

Gen.  xlix 

Seholars  like  Athanasius  Kircher  "  have  already  recognised  that 
the  sentences  of  the  blessing  play  upon  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  The  present  text,  whose  editor  no  longer  understood  the 
meaning,  docs  not  show  the  motifs  clearly  all  through.  The  facts 
themselves  agree  with  the  astral  mythological  motifs  we  have 
already  found.  In  Joseph's  dream  (p.  64<)  the  eleven  brothers 
already  appeared  as  the  zodiacal  signs,  who,  with  sun  and  moon, 
bowed  themselves  before  Joseph  (Tammuz),  representing  the  cycle 
and  the  dawning  new  age.  Also  the  journey  of  the  sons  into  Egypt 
showed  the  motif  of  the  moving  of  the  twelve  signs  through  the 
region  of  the  Underworld  (p.  66,  n.  S).  In  the  following  we 
place  the  traces  of  the  zodiacal  motifs  together,  as  we  find  them 
in  the  blessings  of  Jacob.  Others  raay  find  other  traces.  The 
tradition  of  the  text  being  bad,  it  is  very  easily  probable  that  the 
text  before  us  mixes  various  "  theories."  Others  may  therefore 
perhaps  find  the  motifs  in  a  different  order. 

(11)  Reuben  Aquarius. 

He  is  called  four  times  "the  first,"  and 
the  rights  of  the  first-born  are  taken  from 
him.  According  to  another  tradition,  he 
I  must  have  had  the  leadership  role  of 
I  Judah  (Dillmann,  Genesis,  p.  457).  As 
Aquarius  he  would  correspond  to  Ea,  or 
much  more,  in  a  previous  aeon  redeemed 

^  Example  in  Nork,  Mythologie,  i.  154.  Upon  the  oath  by  the  "  phallus  of 
Allah,"  see  Curtiss,  loc.  cit.,  118  f.  Also  the  phallus  in  antique  industrial  ait  and 
as  amulets  for  women,  still  worn  to  the  present  day  in  Naples  (compare  the  wax 
figures  of  Priapus  at  the  festival  of  Damian,  abolished  in  1781),  originally  vvere  not 
in  any  way  connected  with  "  prostitution,"  see  p.  121,  i.,  n.  2. 

-  CEdipiis  ^gyptiacHS,  1654  ;  for  example,  ii.  I,  p.  21.  In  modern  literatiire 
compare  (besides  Dupuis  and  Nork, /a^jz;«)  Stucken,  Astfaltnylheji,  iM.  V.A.G., 
1902,  166  ff.;  Zimmern,  Z.A.,  1892,  161  ff.;  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.;  J.  Lepsius, 
Reich  Christi,  vi.  375  f.  ;  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  464  ff.  ;  Hommel  in  Hilprecht's 
Anniversary  Voln?ne,  270  ff. 


78 


THE   STORY   OF   JOSEPH 


(3)    SiMEON   AND   Lf.VI 


by  Ea,  to  Munimii  (fov  Mummu  =  Ea,  that 
is  to  sa.y,  in  the  next  aeon  =  Marduk- 
Adapa^  the  sonof  Ea;  see  pp.  6,  i.  f.,  10,  i.). 
The  new  age  arises  by  generation  between 
mother  and  son.  Reuben  "defileth  the 
bed  of  his  father."  ^ 

From  the  Standpoint  of  the  new  age 
the  representative  of  the  old  age  is  (Kingu, 
Mummu)  the  water-dragon.  This  motif 
also  is  found  in  the  blessing  of  Reuben. 
It  speaks  of  □''03  in2-  Ah-eady  Dill- 
mann, in  Genesis,  p.  458,  translates  that 
as  "  ovevflow  of  the  waters"  (Sept. 
i$vßpvcn<;  oj?  vSwp).  In  any  case  a  pheno- 
nienon  of  outpouring  of  water  is,  according 
to  this,  brought  into  connection  with 
Reuben. 

The  hippopotamus  at  once  occurs  to 
one  as  being,  according  to  Job  xl.  14  ff., 
like  behemoth,  the  prinieval  dragon  of 
chaos.  According  to  Job  xl.  I9,  behemotli 
is  "the  first,"  like  Reuben,  "  first  of  the 
ways  of  God,"  Lord  of  the  past  teon. 
Plutarch,  De  Is.  et  Os.,  xxxii.,  sa^'s  :  "  The 
Egyptians  ascribe  shamelessness  to  the 
hippopotamus  ;  for  he  kills  his  father,  and 
by  force  lies  with  his  mother."  -  Reuben, 
therefore,  corresponds  to  a  /odiacal  sign 
in  the  water  region,  which  stood  in  the 
2)lace  of  our  Aquarius,  and  was  represented 
as  a  hippopotamus  or  something  of  that 
description. 

Gf.mini. 

They  are  united  in  one  passage,  and 
are  specially  designated  as  "brothers," 
together  with  four  other  brothers,  born 
of  the  sanie  mother. 


'  Bilhah  (probably  put  in  the  place  of  Leah)  bears  features  of  Ishtar-Aphrodite, 
wife  of  the  halting  Ninib-Mars-Hephaestos.  Reuben  resorts  to  her;  "  Under- 
world"=  "  Ocean,"  see  pp.  8,  i.  and  15,  i.,  the  scene  being  at  the  south  point, 
instead  of  at  the  north  point  (note  that  in  Gen.  xlix.  4  it  is  n^n,  not  it), 
Ninib  =  Nergal,  p.  26,  i. 

2  Whether,  as  Stucken  will  have  it,  a  double  meaning  is  intended  in  the  second 
half  ("  thou  wast  violated,"  instead  of  "  thou  hast  committed  violation  "),  so  that 
the  other  motif  of  the  primeval  age,  the  motif  of  castration  (Rahab,  Ps.  Ixx.xix. 
10,  was  castrated),  is  alluded  to,  we  cannot  undertake  to  decide. 


SIGNS   OF  THE   ZODIAC   IN   JACOB^S   BLESSING     79 

I  We  have  already  found  them  as  Dioscuri 

in   the  revenge  of  the  violation  of  their 

[  sistei-  Dinah  (motif  of  the  new  age  ;  see 
p.  60) ;  they  slew  the  man  in  their  wrath 
(slaying  of  the  tyrant  ?)  and  spoiled  the 
beasts,  as  the  Dioscuri  Gilgamesh  and 
Eabani  ^  in  the  epic  of  Gilgamesh  (wliere 
the   twelve   songs   equally  correspond    to 


Fig.  126. — Horoscope  of  Antiochus  I.  of  Comma^ene  (about  70  B.c.} 
from  the  western  terrace  of  the  Nimrud-Dagh.  (Out  of  Hiimanii- 
Puchstein"s  Reise  in  Kleinasien  und  Noj-dsyrien). 


the  zodiac)  spoil  the  celestial  beast  after 
having  slain  the  tyrant  (Humbaba). 


(5)    JUDAH 


Leo. 


Judah  is  glorified  as  a  hon  (comp.  Rev. 
V.  5)  with  shehet  (sceptre,  parallel  temi  : 
mehoqeq  at  his  feet).^  In  the  constella- 
tion  Leo,  Reguliis,  the  "royal  star,"  is 
between  the  feet.  Amongst  the  Baby- 
lonians  Regulas  was  already  called  the 
royal  star.  In  the  astrological  horoscopes 
anyone  born  at  the  rising  of  Regulus 
would    become     king.       Fig.     1 26    shows 


^  See  Zimmern,  icc.  cit.,  162.  But  vve  do  not  find  in  this  a  "  reminiscence  of 
Gilgamesh  and  Eabani,"  but  rather  in  both  cases  the  same  cosmic  mythological 
motif.     Upon  Gilgamesh  and  the  zodiac,  see  Izdubar-Niini-od,  pp.  66  ff. 

-  Naturally  only  07ie  attribute  is  meant  ;  upon  tne/ioqeq,  comp.  Numb.  xxi.  18. 


80 


THE   STORY   OF  JOSEPH 


(10)  Zebulon 


(4)    ISSACHAR 


(7)  Dan 


(9)  Gad 


(12)    ASHER 


(1)  Naphtau 


such  a  hovoscope.^  This  is  the  "  ruler's 
stafF  between  the  feet  of  the  Hon  of 
Judah."  Shiloh  is  a  motif  of  the  expecta- 
tion  of  the  Deliverer,  which  baffles  inter- 
pretation,  in  spite  of  recent  hypotheses.- 

Capricorn. 

Zebulon  dwelt  by  the  sea.  The  water 
region  begins  at  Capricom.  He  is  close 
to  the  "hunter"  (play  of  word  upon 
Zidon  by  the  sea ;  zaid,  "  hunt "),  to 
Arcitenens. 

Cancer. 

Issachar  is  likened  to  an  ass.  The  ass 
(aselli)  and  his  crib  are  in  the  constella- 
tion  Cancer. 

LiBRA. 

Dan  brought  judgment.  Hence  the 
Symbol  of  the  scales.  And  he  is  "a 
serpent  in  the  way."  Serpens  is  close 
to  Libra. 

Sagittarius. 

Gad  defends  himself  (as  archer)  when 
the  marauding  bands  (Bedouins)  shoot  at 
him  with  arrows. 

PiSCES. 

Asher  yields  royal  dainties.  In  Oriental 
myths  (comp,  the  stories  in  the  Thousand 
and  One  Kights,  and  the  ring  of  Polycrates) 
fish  is  the  royal  dainty. 

Aries. 

Instead  of  ayycda  it  may  be  read  ayil, 
"  i-ara."      "  From  him  come  goodly  words." 


'  It  is  the  horoscope  of  Antiochus  of  Commagene.  The  three  great  stars  of 
sixteen  rays  upon  the  back  have  the  annotation  :  OypJfis  'Hpa/cA.[eoi/s],  'S.tIkQwv 
'A-rrSWwvos,  and  ^aidwv  Ai(5j=Mars,  Mercury,  Jupiter.  It  is  the  constellation 
Leo  (also  to  be  found  upon  coins  of  Antiochus).  Nineteen  of  the  stars  agree  with 
the  Star  catalogue  of  Eratosthenes.  Antiochus  calis  himself  6ehs  SiKatos  and 
ewKpavfts. 

-  The  addition  to  the  Syrian  translation  of  i  Chr.  v.  1-2,  quoted  by  Kittel  in 
the  commentary  is  important  :  "  From  Judah  shall  come  forth  the  king,  the 
Messiah."  The  interpretations  have  been  collected,  from  Gen.  xlix.  10,  to  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  by  Posnanski,  in  Schilo,  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der 
MessiasUhre,  1904.     Upon  Shiloh  =  She'öl,  see  p.  81,  n.  4. 


SIGNS   OF   THE    ZODIAC   IN   JACOB'S  BLESSING     81 

Since   we   have   already   found    Eg-yptian 

coloui-  in   Reuben,  so  we  may  recall  the 

'       irord.s  of  the  "  mm  "  which  announce  the 

I       new    age    iinder    King   Bokchoris   in    the 

j      prophecies  of  the  sage  Anienophis.' 

('■2)  Joseph  I  Taurus. 

In  the  blessing  of  Moses,  Deut,  xxxiii. 
1  7,  Josepli  is  compared  to  a  bull  (wild  ox). 
Gen.  xlix.  22  pvobably  bears  the  same 
sense.  "Joseph  is  a  bullock,  a  bullock, 
an  'Ali-  ....;-  my  late  born  son  is  an 
•Ali-bull."  The  bringer  of  the  new  age 
is  designated  by  the  bull ;  see  pp.  73,  i.  f. 
The  conquering  bow  of  Joseph  touches  a 
corresponding  motif.  We  may  think  of 
the  bow  of  Marduk  (Babylonian  =  "  star 
of  the  bow  ")  or  of  the  bow  of  Orion 
(Orion  =  Marduk-Tammuz  ;  see  pp.  57  f.)." 
In  the  pseud-Aristotelian  Mcnnomic  (see 
Kurt  Riezler,  Fi??anzpolitik  und  Monopole 
I  in  den  griechischen  Staaten)  there  is  a  similar 
chai'acter  to  Joseph  and  Janhamu. 

(8)  Benjamin  Scorpio. 

Benjamin  is  described  as  a  wolf  The 
wolf  (Lupus)  is  situated  south  of  Scorpio  ; 
opposite  to  the  bull  (Joseph)  (for  Joseph- 
Benjamin  as  opposite  poles,  see  p.  66). 
In  myths  the  wolf  is  a  seducer.  In 
Judges  xxi.,  the  wolf  Benjamin  ravishes 
the  women  of  Shiloh,"^  as  the  young  wolf 
Romulus  did  the  Sabines,  and  as  Wölunder, 
Slagfidr,  and  Egil,  who  lived  in  the  ^^alley 
of  VVolves,  ravished  the  women  who  bathed 
in  the  Lake  of  the  Wolf  (see  Stucken, 
Astmlmi/then,  101  ;  M.F.A.G.,  1902,  43). 

■^  Comp.  p.  76,  i.  (the  tradition  according  to  Manetho  in  Krall,  Vom  Köiiig Bok- 
choris in  den-  Festgaben  für  Büdinger,  1S98),  and  lipon  the  sage  Amenophis,  p.  89. 

"  The  parallel  sentences  must  signify  bull.  The  text  is  mutilated.  Zimmern 
compares  for  '*?>•  the  celestial  beast  alA  in  the  epic  of  Gilgamesh,  and  having 
legard  to  Deut,  xxxiii,  17  and  to  the  parallel  sentence  iiw',  requires,  instead  of 
j'j,',  a  Word  like  ünt  (Babylonian  rennt),  bull. 

^  The  comparison  of  the  "  bow  of  Joseph"  with  Orion  in  Beresliit  rabba  may 
be  mentioned  not  only  "for  the  curiosity"s  sake  "  (Zimmern)  ;  it  proves  that  the 
Jews  understood  the  motifs. 

■*  This  is  certainly  an  allusion  to  She'ol,  Shilän,  "  Underworld."  Zimmern, 
Z.A.,  vii.  163  f.,  looks  for  the  same  meaning  in  Gen.  xlix.  10.  The  women  are 
kidnapped  from  the  Underworld. 

VOL.    II.  6 


THE   STORY   OF   JOSEPH 


(6)    DiXAH  ViRGO. 

The  zodiac  has  one  feminine  sign^  the 
maiden,  like  the  planetary  order  of  the 
days  of  the  week.  Only  Dinah,  as  the 
daughter  of  Leah,  can  come  into  eon- 
sideration.  At  p.  60  we  have  noted  her 
importance  together  with  the  Dioseuri 
Simeon  and  Levi.  Her  Ishtar-character 
shows  in  Gen.  xxxiv.,  in  her  bringing 
death  to  her  husband ;  see  p.  63.  In 
Jacob's  blessings  she  is  not  mentioned^ 
unless,  as  Hommel  has  conjectured^  of 
the  double  blessing  given  for  Dan,  one 
I      half  belongs  to  Dinah. 

The  Order  of  the  enumeration  corresponds  in  the  present  text 
to  the  genealogies  (according  to  the  mothers)  and  to  the  geo- 
graphica! Situation.  Originally  it  would  have  followed  the  order 
of  the  zodiacal  signs.  The  editor  did  not  understand  the  motifs. 
Winckler's  attempts.  F.,  iii.  405  ff.,  to  explain  the  present  order  by 
the  order  of  the  gods  of  the  months,  corresponding  to  tlie  zodiacal 
signs  ("angels  of  the  zodiac";  see  Enoch  Ixxxii. ;  Rev.  xxi.  12), 
do  not  appear  to  us  to  be  happy.  ^ 

Gen.  xlix.  23  f ,  see  p.  43  ;  xlix.  '2.5,  see  p.  191,  i- 

^  Gen.  1.  The  funeral  procession  corresponds  to  a  burial  of 
Tammuz.  The  dead  is  to  return.  In  Gen.  xlix.  18,^  Jacob 
has  Said:  "I  wait  upon  thy  salvation,  Yahveh."  In  Gen.  1. 
10  f.,  instead  of  "TiaNn  ]11,  we  suggest  it  should  read  "Tirr  pl, 
"the  threshing-floor  of  Hadad"  (wilful  corruption  of  the 
heathen  name).  It  is  a  Tammuz-Osiris  lanientation,  lasting 
seven  days,  like  the  mourning  for  Josiah,  Zech.  xii.  11  (comp. 
Chron.  xxxv.  24  f.),  whose  return  as  Deliverer  was  expected. 
For  Egyptian  mourning,  see  p.  90.  -!• 

Gen.  1.  26  ;  see  p.  67. 

^  In  the  middle  of  the  zodiacal  motifs.  This  should  be  seriously  noted.  The 
zodiac  represents  the  cycle  which  brings  the  spring  of  the  univeise  ;  see  pp.  25,  i.  ; 
30,  i.  ;  66,  n.  3  ;  77. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 


THE    EXODUS 


As  the  story  of  Abraham  is  connected  with  Babylonia,  so  that 
of  Joseph  is  connected  with  Egypt.  According  to  the  relation 
in  Exod.  i.,  nomadic  Hebrews  i)i  Goshen,  in  the  Delta,  had  always 
been  a  danger  for  Egypt,  as  later  the  nomadic  Aramaeans  and 
Chaldaeans  were  for  Assyria.^  For  this  reason  one  of  the 
Pharaohs  placed  the  able-bodied  Hebrews  of  the  frontier  under 
strict  supervision,'-  and  used  them  for  forced  labour,  as  we 
often  learn  was  done  by  the  Assyrian  kings  (comp.  figs.  127 
and  128).  Exod.  1  ft".  now  relates  how  the  Hebrews,  under 
the  leadership  of  Moses,  accomphshed  by  force  the  "  Exodus 
from  Egypt '"'  and  shook  off  the  yoke.  The  Egyptian  monu- 
ments  record  nothing  of  the  sojourn  of  the  Israeli tes  in  Egypt 
nor  of  the  Exodus.^  Stade  says  :  "  We  shall  learn  more  of  the 
iiberation  of  Israel  only  if  the  stones  of  Egypt  would  speak 
further."  The  fact  is  that,  in  the  region  in  question,  very  few 
monuments  liave,  up  to  the  present,  come  to  light.  But  even 
if  we  had  contemporary  records  from  the  Delta,  judging  from 
all  we  know  of  the  available  records  of  the  Ancient-East,  it  is 
very  unlikely  that  we    should    find   an  event  like  the  Exodus 

1  Contrary  to  the  incomprehensible  opinion  of  Stade,  theie  would  have  been  as 
little  rooni  for  a  stränge  nomad  tribe,  with  its  flocks  and  herds,  in  the  thickly 
colonised  Egypt  as  there  would  be  in  the  "  German  empire  "  :  see  Wincklev,  Ä''r?'(. 
Sehr.,  i.  pp.  28  f. 

-  See  p.  75,  No.  2  ;  90.     Upon  forced  labour,  comp.  p.  46,  n.  2. 

■^  The  spler.didly  printed  book  of  a  certain  Forster,  who  makes  the  discovery  of 
depositions  about  Moses  and  the  Children  of  Israel  during  their  sojourn  in  the 
desert  in  the  Nabatjean  inscriptions,  forms  an  almost  incredible  example  of 
puffing  apologetics,  through  which  monumental  investigation  is  brought  into 
disrepute. 

83 


84 


THE   EXODUS 


recorded.'  Egyptian  historians  carefully  avoid  recovding  events 
which  are  humiliating  to  Egvpt.  Even  the  violeiit  death  of 
Pharaoh  (which,  besides,  bv  no  nieans  follows  from  the  story)^ 


Fig.  12; 


■Assyrian  forced  labour,  transporting  a  colossal  bull. 
Relief  from  Khorsabad. 


Frr,.  128. — Asiatic  prisoners  of  war,  to  the  right  above  sits  the  overseer. 
(From  Spiegelberg's  Aiifeuthalt  Israels  in  Ägypten.) 


'  "  The  Assyrian  records  are  much  fuller,  infinitely  more  exact  in  their  State- 
ments about  the  political  events  of  their  time,  but  we  could  not  expect  anything 
of  that  sort  there,  much  less  in  the  bombastic  phrases  of  the  Egyptian  annals. 
They  only  show  what  the  event — always  presupposing  the  historical  quality  in 
the  form  of  the  Exodus  story — signifies  for  Egypt,  or  better,  what  it  did  not 
signify."     Winckler,  Krit.  Sehr.,  i.  27. 

-  At  most  there  might  be  a  question  of  it  in  the  J.  Exod.  xv.  4  speaks  for  the 
contrary  ;  Ps.  cxxxvi.  15  proves  nothing  (see  Hunimelauer,  Rev.  des  quest.  hist., 
1891,  35S).     Compare  besides,  p.  23,  upon  Gen.  xiv. 


LATER   TRADITION S   OF   THE   EXODUS        85 

would  not  be  recorded.^     We  seldom  leain  anything  about  the 
death  of  the  Pharaohs. 

Bat  thoLigh  Egyptian  political  documentb  give  no  iiiforma- 
tion  about  the  '•  Exodus,''  yet  legendaiy  traditions  retaiii  a 
nieniory  of  the  Hebre^\'s  in  Egvpt. 

I .  The  Baxishment  of   Lepeks 

Hecatteus  of  Abdera  (contemporary  of  Alexander  tlit-  Great) 
i-elateSj  according  to  Diodorus  Siculus,  xl.  3:  "There  dwelt  many 
strangers  amongst  the  Egyptians  who  served  the  gods  in  other 
ways  than  these.  A  plague,  which  afflicted  the  land;,  was  a  sign  to 
the  Egyptians  that  the  gods  were  angered  at  the  decline  of  the 
Egyptian  worship.  They  therefore  drove  out  all  the  strangers ; 
a  part  of  the  last  of  them  journeyed,  under  the  leadei'ship  of 
Moses,  to  Judea  and  there  founded  the  city  of  Jerusalem." 

Manetho,  priest  and  scribe  of  the  temple  at  Heliopolis  in  the 
time  of  the  first  Ptoleniies,  relates,  according  to  Josephus,  Contra 
Äpionem,  i.  t26"  f.  :  -  "  King  Amenophis  wished,  like  one  of  his 
forefathers  nanied  Horos,  to  share  the  good  fortune  of  beholding 
the  gods.  A  sage  to  whom  he  communicated  his  desire  explained 
to  him  that  his  wish  could  only  be  granted  if  he  were  to  free 
Egypt  from  all  lepers  and  other  unclean  people.  In  consequence 
of  this  he  caused  all  those  affected  with  bodily  ailments  throughout 
the  whole  land  to  be  gathered  together,  to  the  number  of  80,000, 
and  to  be  led  away  to  the  stone  quarries  east  of  the  Nile,  between 
the  river  and  the  Red  Sea,  where  they  were  forced  to  severe 
labour.  He  granted  theni  later,  however,  at  their  prayer,  to  go 
and  settle  in  the  eity  of  Avaris,  deserted  by  the  Hyksos.  Here 
then  they  made  a  former  j)riest  of  Heliopolis,  named  Osarsiph,  to 
be  their  leader,  swearing  unreserved  obedience  to  him.  The  first 
care  of  Osarsiph,  who  had  noAv  changed  his  name  to  Moses,  was 
directed  to  working  against  a  possible  new  fusion  of  the  lepers 
Avith  the  Egyptians.  Therefore  he  made  laws  by  which  the  lepers 
could  have  no  companionship  with  anyone  outside  their  own  Com- 
pany, and  could  pray  to  no  gods,  nor  kee})  any  of  the  animals  held 
sacred  by  the  Egyptians,  but  were  to  slay  or  otherwise  kill  them. 
After  he  had  strongly  fortified  the  city  of  Avaris,  he  made  all 
preparations  for  a  war  against  Amenophis,  and  allied  himself  for 
this  purpose  with  the   Hyksos  in  Jerusalem,  from  whence  he  was 

'  We  shall  see  that  Merneplah  II.  comes  into  consideration.  Mis  grave  was 
in  Thebes,  in  Biban-el-Moluk,  but  had  been  already  opened  in  the  time  of  the 
Greeks  ;  .=ee  JMiketta,  Der  Pharao  des  Auszuges,  p.  45.  The  absence  of  the 
mummy  proves  nothing.  According  to  a  hymn  to  the  Nile  he  died  at  a  very  old 
age  ;  see  Wiedemann,  Agypt.  Gesch.,  477. 

-  According  to  i.  16  this  story  originates  in  unauthenticated  traditions 
(a3t(T7r(JTa)J  fxvOoXoyovixiva), 


86  THE   EXODUS 

reinforced  by  an  army  of  200,000  men.  Upon  intelligence  of  this 
Amenophis  sent  his  son  Sethos,  only  seventeen  years  old,  Avho  was 
also  called  Rameses,  to  his  ally  the  king  of  Ethiopia,  to  put  him 
in  safety,  and  then  Avent  himself  at  the  head  of  300,000  men 
against  the  rebels,  but  finally  did  not  risk  a  battle,  but  retired  first 
to  Memphis,  and  then  back  to  Ethiopia.  Egypt  thus  feil  a  prize 
to  the  allied  lepers  and  Hyksos,  and  these  raged  against  all  that 
was  sacred  to  the  Egyptians.  After  thirteen  years  (I),'  however, 
Amenophis  returned  to  Egypt  with  his  son  Rameses  at  the  head  of 
two  great  armies,  defeated  the  allies,  and  drove  them  to  the 
borders  of  Syria."  These  lepers,  adds  Josephus  to  this,  Manetho 
held  to  be  the  forefathers  of  the  Israelites.  Lysimachus  of  Alex- 
andria (about  70  B.c.)  records,  according  to  Josephus,  Contra 
Apionem,  i.  34  :  "  In  the  time  of  King  Bokchoris  -  the  tribe  of  Jews, 
wJiich  was  composed  of  lepers  and  scrofulous  and  other  sorts  of 
sick  people,  camped  in  the  Egyptian  temples  and  begged.  By 
direction  of  the  god  Amon,  Bokchoris  drowned  the  lepers  and  the 
scrofulous  in  the  sea,  and  drove  the  remainder  into  the  desert. 
These  last  then  withdrew  under  the  leadership  of  Moses  into 
Judea,  and  thei-e  founded  the  city  of  Jerusalem." 

2.  The  Banishment  of  the  Hyksos 

Manetho  relates,  according  to  Josephus,  Contra  Apionem,  i.  14- 
(comp  Eusebius,  Praep.  evang.,  x.  13):  "In  the  reign  of  the 
Egyptian  king  Timaos,  strangers  of  an  insignificant  race,  held  by 
some  to  be  Arabs,  and  who  were  in  any  case  shepherds  or  nomads, 
invaded  Egypt.  They  conquered  the  land,  destroyed  the  temples, 
ill-treated  the  natives,  and  made  one  of  themselves,  by  name 
Salatis,  king.  He  chose  Memphis  as  his  residence,  claimed  tribute 
in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  and  held  the  land  in  obedience  by 
o-arrisons,  stationed  in  the  important  places.  He  protected  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  land  against  possible  incursions  of  the 
Assyrians,  and  made  a  city  in  the  Saitic  nome  ^  upon  the  east  side 
of  tlie  Bubastic  arm  of  the  Nile,  which  was  called,  according  to  an 
ancient  fable  of  the  gods,  Avaris,  into  a  ver}-  strong  fortress,  which 
he  o-arrisoned  with  240,000  men,  and  which  seems  to  have  fornied 
the  chief  support  of  his  power.  These  invading  strangers  were 
called  Hyksos.  After  the  Hyksos  had  ruled  for  .511  years,  the 
native  dynasties  of  the  Thebans  and  other  parts  of  the  country 
revolted,  and  began  a  long  and  weary  Avar  against  them.  At 
length  it  came  about  that  King  Alisphragaiuthosis  (Misphragmu- 
thosis)  defeated  them,  and  shut  them  into  a  place  called  Avaris, 
which  had  a  circumference  of  10,000  days'  work.  As  they  made 
Avaris  into  a  strong  fortress,  they  could  not  be  driven  out.     It  was 

'  Upon  the  motif  of  the  number  13,  see  p.  68,  i. 

-  See  p.  89. 

"  According  tu  Julius  Africanus  and  Eusebius  in  Selhroite  nome. 


LATER   TRADITIONS   OF  THE   EXODUS        87 

only  by  persuasion  that  Thummosis  (Tethmosis),  the  son  of  Alis- 
phragmuthosiSj  could  incline  them  to  move  :  240^000  men  strong, 
they  withdrew  with  their  possessions  to  the  Assyrian  desert, 
settled  in  the  later  Judea,  and  founded  the  city  of  Jerusalem." 
Ptolemseus  Mandesius  (beginning  of  first  Century  a.d.)  says  that 
Israel  withdrew  under  the  Pharaoh  Amosis  (Eusebius,  Prcep.  ev., 
X.  10,  11  y,  and  Apion  in  Josephus  (Contra  Apiouejn,  ii.  2)  bases  upon 
this  his  assertion  that  in  the  first  year  of  the  seventh  Olympiad, 
ie.  750  B.c.,  Moses  led  110,000  lepers,  blind,  lame,  and  other 
sick,  out  of  Heliopolis  to  Judea  within  six  days ;  the  people  of  this 
migration  or  expulsion  were  the  Jews. 

Chairemon  of  Naucratis  (first  Century  a.d.)  records  in  his  werk 
AtyvTTTtaKa,  according  to  Josephus,  Contra  Apionem,  i.  32  :  Ameno- 
phis  drove  out  of  Egypt  250,000  unclean  and  maimed.  The 
expelled  betook  themselves,  under  the  guidance  of  the  skilful 
Tisiten,  i.e.  Moses  and  Peteseph,  i.e.  Josef,  to  Pelusium,  they  met 
there  380,000  people  who  were  forbidden  by  Amenophis  any 
further  advance  in  Egypt,  allied  themselves  with  these,  and  com- 
pelled  Amenophis  to  flee  into  Ethiopia.  It  was  his  son  Rameses 
(another  reading,  Messenes),  who  was  born  just  at  the  time  of  his 
father's  flight,  who,  when  he  had  arrived  at  manhood,  dvove  the 
Jews  out  of  Egypt,  300,000  in  number,  and  pursued  them  as  far 
as  Syria. 

Diodorus  Siculus,  xxxiv.  1,  has  it  that  the  Jews  were  driven  frora 
Egypt  as  accursed,  and  afRicted  with  leprosy  and  scurvy.  Tacitus, 
Hist.,  V.  0-5,  says  this  was  the  general  view,  and  dates  the 
expulsion  in  the  time  of  King  Bokchoiüs. 

In  this  double  chain  of  traditions  there  is  hiddeii  an  historical 
reminiscence  of  events,  which  the  Bible  relates  to  us  as  the 
Exodus  of  the  tribe  of  Joseph."-  Both  records  agree  that  a 
religious  movement,  which  niade  itself  feit  in  Egypt,  against  the 
poljtheistic  cult,  was  in  svmpathy  with  nomads  who  canie  from 
Palestine,  and  who  finally  returned  thither.  The  adherents  of 
this  Egyptian  movement  were  called,  together  with  their 
Syrian   allies,  "  unclean  '"■    and    "  lepers  "  ;  '^    this  should  not    be 

'  Geoigius  Syncellus  names  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  "Amosis,  who  is  also 
called  Tethmosis." 

-  Spiegelberg,  Der  Anfentliali  der  Israeliten  in  Ägypten,  p.  13,  comp.  p.  29, 
and  O.L.Z.,  1904,  130,  places  the  Hyksos  dynasty  from  1700-1550.  One  ofthe 
Hyksos  kings  was  named  Ja'kob-hel  (but  compare  now  Ed.  Meyer,  Israel  und  seine 
Nathbarstäinine,  ]:>.  2S2).  x-Vnother  bears  a  name  which  may  be  read  as  Simeon. 
With  the  tradition  of  Josephus  compare  also  Lepsius,  Chronologie  der  Ägypter, 
332.  The  immigration  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  may  quite  well  coincide  with  the 
Hyksos  period. 

"'  In  the  Sallier  papyrus  they  are  called  "the  fever  people,"  i.e.  those  who 
bring  malaria  from  the  swamps  of  the  Delta  ;  see  Marquart,  p.  670.     It  is  also  to 


88  THE   EXODUS 

taken  literally,  but  as  an   expression    of  religious    abhorrence. 
In  both  traditions  the  chief  point  of  support  of  the  movement 
is  the  city  of  Avaris.     Populär  etymology  would  have  connected 
this  with  the  Hebrews,  since  they  were  wandering  Hebrew  tribes 
who  had  their  stronghold  there,  and  who  were  applied  to  for 
help  by  the  "  lepers  " ;  this  is  clearly  seen  to  be  the  meaning  of 
the    later    Egyptian    tradition.     The    leader    of  these  oiitland 
nomad.s    i.s,    according    to    Manetho,    Osarsiph ;    according    to 
Chairemon,    Tisiten.       Osar-siph    is   Jo-seph.       The    Egyptian 
tradition  replaced  the  first  part  of  the  name,  understood  a.s  a 
divine  name  (Jahn  ;  comp.  Ps.  Ixxxi.  5,  the  form  of  the  name 
Jehoseph),  by  the    Egyptian    divine    name    Osiris.     The  name 
Tis-iten  agrees  with  that,  as  \ve  shall  see  later.     Both  traditions 
have  confused  the  figure  of  Joseph  with  that  of  the  later  leader 
Moses  :  Manetho,  in  that  he  holds  both  to  be  identical ;  Chaire- 
mon, in  that  he  names  Moses,  together  with  Joseph  (Osarsiph),  as 
leader.     There  must  have  been   a    monotheistic    movement    in 
Egypt  to  which  the    records    of  Manetho  and  Chairemon  are 
linked.     We  instinctively  think  of  the  figure  of  Amenophis  IV., 
who  in  1380  built  the  city  of  Chut-Aten  for  his  residence,  who 
named  himself  Chu-en-Aten  (that  is,  Resplendence  of  the  Sun's 
Disc),  and  who  caused  himself  to  be  worshipped  as  the  incarna- 
tion    of  the    One    God,  the    Sun-god.     He    is    the  Naphuriria 
(Naphururia)  of  the  Amarna  Letters.     "\Ve  know  that  after  his 
death  the  reformation  Avas  again  extirpated  and  Chut-Aten  was 
violently  destroyed.     If  the    leader    of  the    Syrian    allies    was 
called    Tisiten,    according    to    Chairemon,  also  called  Osarsiph 
by  Manetho,  that  would  agree  with  the  phenomenon  of  which 
we   have    also    other   evidence    under    Amenophis,  that  vassals 
were  given  names  which  glorified  the  new  cult :  ifeii  is  the  disc 
of  the  sun.     The  assumption  that  Chuenaten  is  the  Pharaoh  of 

be  borne  in  niind  in  regard  to  it  that  the  contempt  of  the  Egyptians  for  shepheids 
as  "  unclean  "  gave  occasion  for  the  Variation.  Also  the  Egyptian  designation  of 
the  Syrians  as  s/iasie  may  have  helped  ;  see  Rlarquart,  /oc.  cit.,  p.  673.  In 
Gen.  xlvi.  34  the  concluding  words,  "  every  shepherd  an  aboniination  unto  the 
Egyptians,"  seem  to  contain  a  remembrance  of  the  contempt  for  the  "leprous" 
Asiatics.  But  the  reason  for  them  does  not  agree  with  that  idea.  The  assertion 
that  the  people  of  Jacob  are  peaceful  shepherds  would  probably  be  to  quiet  the 
suspicions  of  Pharaoh,  not  to  waken  his  contempt. 


EGYPTIAN    EXPECTATION    OF   A    REDEEMER     89 


X 


the  Syrian  Osarsiph  allied  to  the  "lepers''  also  agrees  f'airly 
with  the  chronology  ghen  by  Manetho.  For  the  Pharaoh 
Amenophis,  who  here,  from  the  Egyptian  poiiit  of  view,  appears 
as  the  "  pious  ■"  king,  is  clearly  Amenophis  III.  Diiring  his 
reign  there  hved,  in  fact,  that  sage  Amenophis,  son  of  Paapis 
(Hapu),  to  whom,  later,  in  the  Ptolemaic  period,  sayings  were 
ascribed  which  form   an  analosv  - 

to  the  sayings  of  the  Seven  Sages. 
The  Bibhcal  chronology,  which 
reckons  480  years  from  the  Exodus 
from  Egypt  to  the  dedication  of 
the  Temple,  leads  to  the  time  of 
Amenophis.  This  Amenophis  is 
probably  identical  with  that  Bok- 
choris  in  whose  time  Amenophis 
III.  lived,  and  in  whose  reign, 
according  to  Manetho,  an  upvlov 
spoke  (the  zodiacal  ram  as  for- 
teiler of  the  new  age).^  The 
motif  is  prophecy,  as  has  been 
exemplined  in  the  middle  periods. 
"  The  continual  scheme  is,  that  a 
sage  foretells  the  advent  of  i^reat 
evils,  the  overthrow  of  all  institutions,  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
by  stränge  people,  etc.  ;  afterwards  the  rescue  follows  through 
a  righteous  king,  beloved  of  the  gods,  who  expels  the 
strangers,  restores  order  and  civilisation,  and  has  a  long  and 
blessed  reign.''  -      We  may  assume,  therefore,  that  at  the  time 

^   Like  the  apulov  of  the  Apocalypse  ;  see  p.  76,  i.,  comp.  B.N.T.,  16  f. 

-  Ed.  Meyer,  loc.  eil.,  452  ff.  {=Ber.  Kgl.  Prcuss.  Akad.  d.  IFiss.,  1905,  xxxi.), 
b.-iys  the  more  he  considers  the  problem  the  less  he  can  accept  the  view  that  there 
is  here  an  historical  connection  with  the  expectation  of  the  Deliverer  of  the 
Israelite  Prophets.  Certainly  !  Only  it  is  not  a  question  of  "  adopting  out  of 
Egypt  the  purport  of  the  predictions,"  but  of  the  u/ii'/y  of  the  religious  conception 
in  the  Ancient-East.  The  same  expectation  of  the  Deliverer  rules  Babylon  and 
Canaan  ;  see  B.N.T ,  8  ff.  And  when  Ed.  Meyer  in  this  point  opens  the  window 
upon  the  Ancient-East,  we  do  not  understand  how,  in  loc.  cit.,  p.  i,  he  can  assume 
of  the  fable  of  Romulus,  which  especially  and  characteristically  shows  the  Ancient- 
Oriental  motif  of  the  new  age  (see  the  following),  that  it  is  borrowed  from  the 
tragedy  of  Sophocles.  Oue  may  see  in  this  also  what  a  barrier  the  theory  of 
borrowing  raises. 


;.  \-(^.  — Rameses  II.  (I'rom 
Spiegelberg's  Aufenthalt  Israels  in 
Ägypten.) 


90  THE   EXODUS 

of  the  sojourn  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  the  Egyptian  world  also 
was  filled  with  the  expectation  of  the  Deliverer.  By  this 
the  "Egyptian  niourning"  for  Jacob  (Gen  1.)  also  acquires  a 
deeper  meaning.  Latterly,  Rameses  II.  (see  figs.  129  and 
130)  has  been  held  to  be  the  Pharaoh  of  the  oppression, 
in  unexplained  Opposition,  certainly,  to  the  late  Egyptian 
tradition  spoken  of  above.  An  authority  for  this  view  is  the 
late    ffloss    DDDJPT    to    Pithom.       In    his    time,    certainly,    the 


^-triiaaSPrr**.^ 


^i^ÄÜ 


Fig.  130.— Rameses  II.     Head  of  the  Fig.  131. — Merneptah.     (From 

mummy.     (Spiegelberg,  loc.  cit.)  Spiegelberg,  loc.  eil.) 

Asiatic  nomads  were  a  great  danger,  so  that  he  had  good  cause 
to  keep  a  sharp  watch  Lipon  the  Hebrews  in  Goshen.  After  his 
death  Egypt  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  destruction,  under 
Merneptah,  by  Libyan  and  Nubian  hordes.  The  tribes  of 
Goshen  may  then  ha^•e  conspired  with  the  related  Bene-Israel 
in  Canaan.  The  inscription  of  Merneptah,  p.  332,  i.  ("  Israel  is 
wasted "),  may  agree  with  this.  From  Merneptah,  then  (about 
1250,  see  fig.  131),  the  Exodus  was  extorted. 

i{i  Story  of  the  Birth  of  Moses 

Like  Jacob  and  Joseph,  Moses  is  a  deliverer.  The  rescue  from 
Egypt  holds  the  place,  as  we  have  seen_,  of  the  combat  with  and 
victory  over  the  dragon.  The  Deliverer  motifs,  with  which  his 
figure  is  interwoven^  entirely  correspond  to  the  late  Jewish  con- 


STORY    Or   THE   BIRTH    OF   MOSES  91 

ception.  Shemoth  rabba  records.  about  Exod.  i.  22,  that  the 
astrologers  (I)  told  Pharaoh  that  a  woman  was  with  child  who 
should  be  the  deliverer  of  Israel  :  and  upon  Exod.  ii.  4  it  is  said 
Miriam  prophesied :  My  inother  shall  bear  a  son,  -svho  will  deliver 
Israel. 

The  briiiger  of  the  new  age  is  endowed  with  certain  motifs, 
which  are  either  connected  with  the  traditional  events  of  his  life, 
or  are  given  as  ornamental  side-play  in  the  story,  or  are  veiled  in 
the  nameSj  niunbers,  and  play  of  words  in  it. 

[.  In  the  first  place^  the  hero  of  the  new  age  is  of  mysterious 
birth.  Even  when  the  story  knows  the  name  of  the  father,  he  is 
designated  as  "^fatherless."  It  has  long  been  noted  that  the 
relationship  added  from  P  ^  of  Amrana  and  Jochebed  (Exod.  vi.  20) 
do  not  agree.  In  the  blessing  of  Moses  the  tradition  has  retained 
the  fatherless  birth  : 

Deut,  xxxiii.  9  :  "'  VVho  said  of  his  father,  and  of  his  mother, 
I  have  not  seen  them  ;  who  did  not  acknowledge  his  brethren,  nor 
would  he  know  anything  of  his  own  children."  Compare  with 
this  the  aTraTwp,  ajj.-^Twp,  dyereaXoy/^Tos  of  Melchizedek  (Heb.  vii.  3); 
further,  Baruch  5Sa  :  Elias  had  neither  father  nor  mother;  and 
from  the  Babylonian  matei'ial,  Gudea  Cyl.,  A  ii.  2S  ff.,  iii.  1  ff.  : 
"  I  have  no  mother^  thou  (the  goddess)  art  my  mother  ;  I  have  no 
father,  thou  art  my  father  ....  in  the  holy  place  hast  thou 
borne  me"  ;  compare  fui'ther  Sargon's  descent  from  a  vestal  and  a 
man  of  low  birth. - 

2.  The  hei'o  is  persecuted  by  the  dragon  and  saved  in  a  ehest. 
The  place  of  the  dragon  is  taken  here  by  the  Pharaoh  uf  Egypt.^ 
The  ehest  is  called  tebah,  like  the  ark  in  which  Noah,  the  bringer 
of  the  new  age,  was  saved.  After  the  mother  had  hidden  the 
child  for  three  months  (!)  (Exod.  ii.  2)  because  she  saw  that  he  was 
"stately"    {(oh),  she  took  for  him  *  a  ehest   of  reeds  and  daubed 

-  Orelli,  R.Pr.Th,,  3rd  ed.,  xiii.  487  :  "  Amram  is,  according  to  Numb.  iii. 
27  f.,  scarcely  the  actual  father  of  Moses.''  Exod.  ii.  i,  "and  he  took  the  daughter 
of  Levi "  (the  Sept.  corrects  it  to  röiv  öv/arpiv),  cannot  be  understood  historically  ; 
the  sojourn  in  Egypt  lasted  430  years, 

-  Pp.  93  f.  We  know  the  name  of  the  royal  father,  The  father  "  of  low 
degree"  is  a  variant  upon  the  fatherless  birth.  "  My  father  was  a  worthy  man  "  ; 
See  p.  93,  n.  2. 

■■  B.N.T.,  46  ff.,  it  is  shown  that  Matthew  I^new  the  motifs,  and  takes 
pleasure  in  indicating  how  they  agree  also  with  the  childhood  of  Jesus.  The 
dragon  here  is  Herod.  The  medieval  plays  still  recognise  the  motif,  in  that  they 
always  represent  Herod  with  a  red  beard  (comp.  p.  51,  n.  3).  In  Rev.  xii.  i  ff. 
we  may  see  the  motifs  particularly  clearly.  The  dragon  would  devour  the  child. 
It  is  rescued  and  sits  upon  the  throne.  The  saving  ark  shows  itself  in  Rev.  xi.  19. 
It  is  the  ark  of  the  tabernacle  in  heaven,  designated  as  nißcirds.  Tabernacle 
and  throne  are  identical.  This  Observation  is  decisive  in  the  question  of  the 
original  meaning  of  the  tabernacle  in  religious  history. 

^  np^  motif  Word  of  taking  away  ;  sce  p.  240,  i. 


92  THE   EXODUS 

it  -with  bitiimen  and  with  pitch  (comp.  Gen.  vi.  14)  tind  laid  it. 
ntter  she  had  put  the  child  therein,  in  the  reeds  on  the  hnuk  ot' 
the  Nile.  In  the  stuiy  ot"  Saroon  it  is  said  :  '^•' My  mother  laid  nie 
in  a  basket  ot'  s/tih'u  reed.  ina  idde  babi-ia  [note  the  expression 
bdb»,  '  door,'  about  a  little  ehest]  iphi,  closed  niy  door  with  jiitch." 

3.  The  Queen  of  Heaven  takes  the  rescued  one.  Ishtar  loves 
Tammuz.  In  the  legend  of  Sargon  it  is  a  "sister  of  Marduk,"  a 
vestal,  whü  takes  the  place  of  Ishtar  (compare  the  niyth  of 
Romulus),  the  mother.  Ishtar  herseif  loves  him^  and  bestows 
power  and  lordship  upon  him.  In  the  myth  of  the  new  agc 
mother  and  wife  are  one.^  The  story  of  the  childhood  of  Moses 
uses  the  tradition  of  his  education  at  the  royal  court  to  emphasise 
this  molif  The  place  of  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  Ishtar,  is  taken 
l)y  the  royal  princess.  The  same  motif  appears  again  in  the 
education  ofHadad  (nanie  =  Tammuz  !),  1  Kings  xi.  1-t- iJ5,  Avho  then 
marries  the  princess  Tahpeiies,  who  bore  him  his  sou  Genubath. 

4.  The  puzzling  iiame  Mosheh  also  contains  a  motif  The  nanie 
perhaps  corresponds  to  the  Egyptian  personal  name  Avhich  signifies 
"son."  A  divine  nanie  should  be  supplied  (comp  Thutmosis, 
"son  of  Thot ").  But,  in  the  abridged  Hebraicised  name,  a 
motif  is  veiled.  "  Drawn  out  of  the  water"  someone  explains 
(G^Ht  ii.  1 0)  who  did  not  understand  the  motif  The  name,  from  the 
Hebrew  point  of  view,  much  more  nearly  means  "the  drawer."-' 
In  the  story  of  Sargon  the  drawing  of  water  means  something 
decisive.  It  is  repeated  three  times.  Aqqi  says :  "  I  have  drawn 
water"  ;  iidq  >ne  is  the  drawer  of  water.  The  drawer  of  water  is 
the  gardener.3  Behind  the  deliverer  is  hidden  Ea,  the  "drawer 
of  water"  and  gardener  of  the  universe  (comp.  Gen.  iii.,  Yahveh 
as  gardener).  The  variant  is  the  agriculturalist.  The  rescued 
une  receives  the  call  from  the  divine  Father.  This  also  links  the 
story  to  the  motifs  of  the  story  of  Sargon.  Sargon  ( =  Marduk,  son 
of  Ea)  is  the  gardener,  on  what  is  the  same  thing,  •'  peasant " 
{ikkarti  of  Babylon) ;  compare  with  this  p}).  59,  i.  f- ;  74,  i.  This  shows 
the  meaning  veiled  in  the  story.  Since  the  chronicler  of  Exod.  ii. 
obviously  knew  the  meaning  of  the  motifs  and  specially  the  story 
uf  Sargon,  it  is  very  probable  that  in  the  name  Mosheh  the  motif 
of  the  gardener  (water-bearer  ■*)  was  in  his  miiid. 

'  Comp.  pp.  6,  i.  rt".  ;  119,  i.  f.  The  (Tueen  uf  Heaven  in  Kev.  xii.  J  is  the 
mother  of  the  conqueror,  then  bride  of  the  conqueror,  Rev.  x.xi.  9  f. 

-  Thus  already  in  .A.T.A.O.,  ist  ed.,  256,  under  the  reference  to  Aqqi,  the 
"  water-bearer,"  in  regard  to  Sargon  ;  see  now  Winckler,  /•".,  iii.  468  f. 

"  Not  "as  the  wretched  occupation  of  ihe  daily  labourer,  who  draws  water 
with  the  shadtii'if  in  the  field,"  as  Winckler,  loc.  cit.,  469  thinks.  Incidentally  \ve 
may  reniark  that  it  is  dealing  in  the  üld  Testament  with  the  wretched  occupation 
of  the  water-carriers  in  the  passages  i  Kings  xiv.  10 ;  i  Sam.  xxv.  22,  34,  where, 
therefore,  Luther's  curious  Iranslation  ("even  to  the  boy,  who  pisseth  against 
the  wall,"  like  Kautzsch)  explains  itself. 

^  Upon  "gardener,"  comp.  p.  94,  n    i. 


ASTRAL   MOTIFS   IN   THE    STORY   OF   MOSES     98 

We  will  here  put  together  some  further  Mardnk-Tammuz  motifs 
of  the  Story  of  Moses.  Exod.  vii.  1  :  -^  make  thee  a  god  to  Phavaoh, 
and  Aaron  shall  be  thy  prophet."  Moses  is  Marduk  and  Aaron 
Nebo  (judn),  as  Barnabas  and  Paul,  x'^cts  xiv.  ]  ff.,  seemed  to  the 
people  of  Lystra  to  be  Jupiter  and  Mercury,  bringing  the  new 
age.      Comp,  also  p.  102  upon  Exod.  vii.  1.        * 

The  rescue  from  Egypt  is  victory  over  the  dragon.  The  dividing 
of  the  sea  (Exod.  xiv.  21  f.),  like  the  dividing  of  Jordan  by  Joshua"^ 
(Joshua  iii.    l6),   recalls  the  dividing  of  the  monsters  of"  chaos. 

xMoses  appears  before  the  people  veiled  (Tammuz-Attar  veil). 
His  unveiling  would  signifv  death  :  see  pp.  121,  i.  ;  62,  n  0  and 
p.  l."9. 

He  bears  the  magic  staff,  which  belongs  to  the  attributes  of 
Orion-Tammuz  ;  see  pp.  57  f  In  death  "his  eye  was  not  dim,  his 
freshness  not  vanished,"  Deut,  xxxiv.  7.  Comp.  Enoch  Ixxii.  .'57  : 
'■'as  he  rises,  so  he  sets "  (the  san).  Tammuz-Marduk  descends 
into  the   Underworld  in  youthful  vigour. 

The  Nebo  motif  of  the  story  of  the  death  corresponds  to  the 
Marduk  motif  of  the  story  of  the  birth.  Nebo  is  the  dying  Marduk  ; 
see  p.  29,  i.  For  this  reason  one  of  the  sources  names  the  mountain 
of  death  Nebo,  Deut,  xxxii.  49.  According  to  xxxiv.  1  it  was 
Pisgah  in  the  Abarim-(Nibiru)  mountains ;  see  p.    151. 

The  mourning  was  for  thirty  days,  '•  and  the  Israelites  wept  for 
Moses  thirty  days"  (that  is  the  time  of  mourning  for  Tammuz, 
the  nionth  of  Tammuz) ;  only  then  was  the  time  of  mourning  foi- 
Moses  ended,  Deut,  xxxiv.  8.  The  festival  of  Ramadhan  has  same 
length  of  mom'nino-.i  ;•: 


E.vamplefi  of  Rescue  'in  Chests 

The  story  of  the  exposure  of  Savgon,  founder  of  Babylon 
(about  2800  r.c),  rnns  : - 

"Sargon,  the  mighty  king  of  Agade,  am  I.  My  mother  was  a 
vestal,3  my  father  of  low  degree,*  whilst  my  father's  brother  dwelt 
in  the  mountains.  My  eity  is  Azupiranu,  wlaich  lies  upon  the  bank 
of  the  Euphrates.  My  vestal  mother  conceived  me  and  I  was 
born  in  secret.  She  laid  me  in  a  ehest  of  reeds,  closed  my  door 
with  pitch,  and  laid  me  in  the  river.  .  .  .  The  river  bore  me  down 
to  Aqqi,  the  water-bearer.^     Aqqi,  the  water-bearer,  drawing  water 

^  See  Winckler,  F.,  ii,  345  ;  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  89. 

2  Text  III.  R.  4,  No.  7  ;  Pinches,  P.B.A.S.,  xviii.  257  ;   CT.,  xiii.  42. 

"  eiiitu  is  the  "  divine  sister  "  of  the  Laws  of  Hammurabi. 

■•  itlidi,  "iinknown."  So  with  the  names  of  witnesses  in  the  Neo-Babylonian 
contracts  in  the  case  of  Citizens,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Citizens  who  can 
name  father  and  grandfather,  that  is  to  say,  ancestors  ;  see  p.  153  and  p.  91,  n.  2. 

'  See  p.  94, 


94  THE   EXODUS 

....  he  drew  me  out ;  Aqqi,  the  water-ljearer,  i-eared  me  as  his 
child  ;  Aqqij  the  water-bearei^  made  me  his  gardener.  As  gardener  ^ 
Ishtar  loved  me  ....  for  years  I  commanded  ....  for  years  I 
commanded  the  black-headed  people  and  ruled  them."  - 

According  to  the  Jewish  fable  Abraham  was  pevsecuted  aftev  his 
birth^  and  saved  in  a  cave  ;  see  Beer,  Lehen  Abrahams. 

The  Egyptian  divine  mother  Hathor  fled,  persecuted  by  Typhon, 
in  a  boat  of  papyrus.  and  lipon  a  floating  island  bore  Horus. 

The  Egyptian-PhcBnician  myth  of  Osiris-Adonis  ■  relates  :  When 
Osiris  Avas  shut  in  the  trunk-*  and  throAvn  into  tlie  river,  he  floated 
to  Phoenieia,  where  they  called  him  Adonis.  Isis  searched  for 
him ;  she  came  to  Byblos,  and  sat  in  her  sadness  by  a  spring,  Avhere 
none  spake  to  lier^  save  the  maids  of  tlie  royal  hoiise,  by  wliose 
means  she  found  refiige  with  the  queen  (called  Astarte  !)  and  was 
appointed  to  watch  over  her  son. 

Zeus  was  born  in  the  grotto  of  Ida,  where  his  mother  Rhea  had 
fled  from  Kronos,  who  devoured  his  own  children.  The  bees  of  the 
mountain  and  the  goat  Amalthea  nourished  the  child  with  milk 
and  honey  (I),  whilst  the  Centaurs  covered  the  crying  of  the  child 
by  a  dance  with  weapons  (see  fig.  63,  p.  I69,  i.). 

.Elian,  Hi.st  Anim.,  xii.  21,  relates  of  Gilgamos  :  When  Sene- 
choros  ruled  over  the  Babylonians,  the  Chaldean  soothsayers  pre- 
dicted  that  the  son  of  the  king's  daughter  would  take  the  kingdom 
from  his  grandfather  ;  and  this  saying  was  a  proverb  amongst  the 
Chaldeans.  This  alarmed  the  king,  and  he  was  for  his  daughter,  to 
speak  jestingly,  a  second  Acrisius^  for  he  guarded  her  with  great 
strictness.  But  the  daughter — for  Fate  was  wiser  than  the  Baby- 
lonians —  secretly  bore  a  child  by  an  invisible  husband.  The 
guards,  for  fear  of  the  king,  threw  the  child  from  the  acropolis  ; 
for  it  was  here  the  royal  daughter  was  imprisoned.  The  sharp  eye 
of  the  eagle  saw  the  fall  of  the  boy,  and,  before  he  reached  the 
earth,  he  took  him  upon  his  back,  carried  him  to  a  garden,  and  set 
him  down  with  great  care.  Now  when  the  overseer  of  the  place 
(gardener  !)  saw  the  beautiful  boy,   he   loved   him,   and    nourished 

^  Abdalonymus  of  Sidon  (excerpt  from  Justinus,  11  ;  Curtius,  iv.  3),  see 
Winckler,  F.,  ii.  168  note,  was  called  from  his  garden  to  be  king  ;  the  same 
motif  in  üilgamesh,  p.  94. 

"  The  Etana  myth  relates  how  the  guds  desired  upon  earth  a  suitable  man  to 
bear  the  insignia  of  the  kingdom  which  were  lying  ready  in  heaven  (see  p.  59,  i.). 
Ishtar  bestirs  herseif  to  find  such  an  one.  Then  (after  a  gap  in  the  fragmentary 
text)  the  birth  of  a  child  is  described  ;  it  can  only  be  trealing  of  the  child,  who 
is  destined  for  the  kingdom.  The  father,  Etana,  is  obliged  to  seek  the  help  of 
the  güds.  He  yearns  for  the  magic  plant  of  birth.  The  eagle  is  to  oblain  it 
for  him.  But  the  "serpent  of  night"  worries  him  because  he  has  eaten  her 
young.  The  eagle  carries  him  up  to  the  throne  of  Ishtar.  Finally,  the  eagle  and 
Etana  fall  to  the  earth.     The  fragments  relate  nothing  about  the  fate  of  the  child. 

"  Plutarch,  Be  Is.  et  Os.,  13  ff.,  39,  50  ;  see  Movers,  Phönizier,  i.  235  ff. 

■*  A  "beautiful,  gorgeously  decorated  ehest'' ;  see  Ilerodotus,  ii.  86. 


EXAMPLES   OF   RESCUE   IN   CHESTS  95 

him ;  he  received  the  name  of  GilgaxnoS;,  and  became  king  of 
Babylon.  Also  the  fragments  of  the  Babylonian  epic  of  Gilgamesh 
lay  stress  upon  the  mother  of  the  hero. 

Thoas  was  shut  up  at  the  time  of  the  general  massacre  in  a 
ehest  by  his  mother^  and  it  floated  to  Scythia.  .Egisthiis.  who  ruled 
over  the  people  of  Agamemnon,  was  exposed  by  his  mothev,  as  a 
new-born  child,  and  nourished  with  the  milk  of  a  goat. 

Telephos  of  Auge,  begotten  by  Heracles,  was  put  in  a  trunk, 
together  with  his  motlier,  by  liis  grandfather,  Aleos  (whose  eldest 
son  was  Lycurgus)  and  thrown  into  the  sea. 

In  Pausanias,  iii.  2i,  the  birth  of  Bacchus  is  embellished  by  a  fable 
bearing  a  strong  reseniblance  to  the  story  of  Moses.  He  was  born 
in  Egypt^  exposed  in  the  Nile  in  a  ehest,  in  order  that  he  might 
escape  the  persecution  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  was,  at  three 
months  old  (!),  rescued  by  a  king's  daughter. 

Diodorus,  ii.  9,  relates  of  Semiramis :  Close  to  Ascalon,  the 
Syrian  goddess  Derceto,  who  had  the  head  of  a  woman,  whilst  the 
rest  of  her  body  was  that  of  a  fish,  bore  a  daughter  to  a  young 
Syrian.  She  killed  the  youth.  and  exposed  the  child  upon  the 
barren  mountains.  The  child  was  nourished  by  doves,  and  later, 
w'as  found  by  the  shepherds^  and  brought  up  by  the  overseer  of  the 
royal  herds,  Simmas  by  name.  Onnes,  one  of  the  king's  coun- 
sellorS;,  married  her.  Later,  the  king  himself,  Ninus,  took  her  to 
wife. 

.Elian,  Hisi.  Anim.,  xii.  21,  says  that  also  Achtemenes,  from 
whom  the  nobles  of  Persia  are  descended,  was  the  nursling  of  an 
eagle. 

Herodotus,  i.  113^  relates  of  Cyrus,  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
Persia,  that  by  command  of  his  grandfather,  in  consequence  of  a 
dream,  he  was  exposed,  but  was  rescued  and  nourished  by  a 
shepherd.  Hüsing,  O.L.Z.,  1903,  145  f,  points  out  a  variant  to  this 
fable  of  Cyrus. 

Suidas^  s.v.  Aayos,  records  tliat  Ptolemaios,  son  of  Lagos  and 
Arsinoe,  was  exposed  as  a  child  ;  an  eagle  protected  liim  from  suu 
and  rain  and  birds  of  prey. 

Herodotus,  v.  92  ff.^  relates  of  Cypselos,  the  founder  of  a  Corinthian 
dynasty,  that  he  was  born  of  the  lame  Labda,  and  hidden  in  a  ehest 
(play  upon  the  name  Cypselos  !),  because  ten  men  sought  his  life, 
and  later  he  ruled  Corinth  for  thirty  years. 

ApollodoruSj  ii.  4,  1,  relates  of  Perseus,  son  of  Danse  and  the  god 
Zeus,  that  he  w^as  placed,  together  with  his  mother,  in  a  ehest,  by 
his  grandfather  Acrisius,  and  thrown  into  the  sea.  They  landed  on 
a  Strange  coast,  and  the  child  was  brought  up  by  the  stränge  ruler. 
He  killed  Medusa,  rescued  the  Ethiopian  king's  daughter,  Andro- 
meda,  became  king  of  Argos,  then  of  Tiryns,  and  built  Mycene. 

Romulus  and  Remus,  the  fabulous  founders  of  the  Roman  empire, 
were  held  to  be  sons  of  the  vestal  (!)  Rhea  Silvia  and  the  god  of 
war,  Mars.  Their  mother  was  drowned  on  account  of  her  broken 
vows.     The  children  immediately  after  their  birth  were  thrown  in 


96  THE   EXODUS 

a  trougli  into  the  Tiber,  by  ovder  of  Emulius.  The  troiigh  vemained 
eiitangled  in  the  roots  of  a  fig-tree.  Here  they  vrere  found  by  a 
wolf.  She  noui-ished  the  children  tili  they  were  discovered  by  the 
chief  sheplierd  Faustulus.^ 

According  to  the  ^'olsunger  Saga,  Sigurd,  son  of  Siegmund,  was 
pxposied  in  the  river,  nourished  by  a  bind,  and  found  by  Minie. - 

An  example  of  how  such  mythical  niotifs  were  quite  intentionally 
linked  on  to  historical  personalities  is  ofFered  by  Stratonice^  the 
rebuilder  of  the  temple  of  Hierapolis,  wife  of  Seleucus,  and  then 
of  her  stepson  Antiochus.  The  story  applies  the  features  of  Ishtar- 
Semiramis  to  the  queen,  and  clearly  also  the  name  was  nieant  to 
allude  to  Ishtar.^ 

Exod.  ii.  15  :  Moses  fled  into  Midian.  We  have  seen  the  true 
reason  for  the  flight  in  the  story  of  Sinuhe,  p.  326,  i.  Moses 
was  assui'edly  already  a  political  personality  ;  comp.  Exod.  xi.  S. 
He  came  to  Midian  (see  p.  68)  to  Jethro,  who  at  Horeb  carried 
on  bis  office  as  kohen  ( =  Arabian  Jiahin)  at  a  sanctuary,  with 
an  Organisation  which  we  may  picture  to  ourselves  as  like  that 
of  the  tribes  of  the  Koreish  at  the  sanctuary  of  Mecca.  The 
story  takes  us  into  the  Minaean  civilisation,  into  a  territory 
where  later  the  Nabataean  kingdoni,  and  then  the  Roman 
province  of  Arabia  Petrfea,  flourished.  The  cult  in  that  district 
shows,  as  we  shall  see  (p.  118),  streng  relationship  to  the  later 
Israelite  cult.  It  fornied,  possibly,  the  connecting  link  between 
the  Hebrews  in  Canaan  and  the  Hebrews  in  Goshen.  In  any 
case,  as  a  third  centre  of  civilisation,  making  its  influence  feit 
upon  Israel,  together  with  Babylonia  and  Egypt,  we  find 
Arabia.* 

The  north-west  territory,  including  the  peninsula  of  Sinai, 
which  forms  the  scene  of  the  Exodus  story,  was  in  those  days  at 
least  as  much  ruled  by  Minasan  civilLsation  as  it  is  to-day  by 
that  of  Islam.  Till  shortly  before  the  Mosaic  period  it  belonged 
to    the    Egvptian    realm,  as   is   shown    by   the    inscriptions    of 

^  A  lately  discovered  fiescoe  in  Pompeii  represents  the  mytli. 

-  Further  examples  in  B.N.T.,  31.  There  also,  pp.  28  f.,  exaniples  of  the 
motif  of  the  niirture  of  the  bringer  of  the  new  age  by  the  Queen  of  Heaven 
are  given. 

■'  See  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  227  f.  ;  Kampf  luii  Babel  und  Bibel,  4th  ed.,  p.  35. 

'  To  the  following  compare  Nielsen,  Altarahische  Movdreligio»,  Strassburg, 
1904.  The  book  offers  valuable  material  and  contains  many  inspiring  thoughts, 
but  suffers  from  lack  of  historical  crilicism,  The  text  of  the  iradition  is  taken 
without  discriminatiDii  of  source,  and  without  criticism. 


YOUTH   OF   MOSES  97 

Meghara  and  Serabit  el  Khadem.  The  Egyptians  brought 
malachite  (mqfkaf)  froni  there  ;  and  they  called  the  people  the 
Mentu.  The  most  ancient  Pharaohs  known,  like  Snefru,  Chufu 
(Cheops),  further,  üsertesen  II.  and  Anienemhat  III.,  ah'eady 
mention  the  district  aniongst  their  interests.  At  the  time 
under  our  consideration  the  inscriptions  are  silent  about  this 
district,  only  Ramese.s  IL,  in  an  inscription  at  Meghara,  casuallv 
mentions  it.  When  Moses  went  to  Midian,  he  pas.sed  as  a 
poHtical  fugitive  out  of  the  sphere  of  the  power  of  the  Pharaohs, 
as  at  one  time  Abraham  (pp.  4  f.)  passed  the  boundary  of 
the  reahii  of  Hammurabi,  when  he  journeyed  into  Canaan. 
The  Egvptian  rule  was  relieved  by  the  influence  of  the  South 
Arabian  mercantile  cities,  which  made  their  influence  feit  as  far 
as  the  seaports  of  the  Philistines.  The  aiphabet  of  the  so- 
called  Harra  inscription  shows  South  Arabian  influence,  and  the 
so-called  Lihjan  inscription  gives  evidence  of  South  Arabian 
civilisation  in  North- West  Arabia.^ 

There  is  hope  that  the  inscriptions  of  Ma'in,  collected  by 
Ed.  Glaser,  may  throw  some  light  for  us  upon  those  regions  in 
the  second  millennium.  Seventy  small  inscriptions  which  are  in 
Minaean  writing  and  language,  found  by  Euting  between  Petra 
and  Medina,  date  from  the  end  of  the  second  millennium  b.c. 
They  prove  the  political  dependence  upon  the  mother  country, 
and  the  rule  of  Mintean  civilisation  and  religion  in  North 
Arabia  amongst  the  •' Minreans  of  Muzr"  (Ma'an  Muzran),  as 
they  are  called  in  the  South  Arabian  inscriptions.  We  may 
presuppose  the  same  circumstances  in  regard  to  the  connecting 
road  between  Egypt  and  Palestine. 

Exod.  iii.  1  (E) :  Moses  Jcept  the  sheep  of  Jethro,  priest  of 
Midian.  This  refers  to  the  sacrificial  herds  of  the  Minaean 
priest.-  He  would  then  be  the  Temple  shepherd.  A  bämäh 
which  is  preserved  in  that  neighbourhood  is  shown  in  flg.  150. 

1  See  Hommel,  Ju/s.  u.  Abk.,  230  ff.  ;  Winckler,  A,  iii.  367  ff.  ;  Weber, 
/M.V.A.G.,  1901,  I  ff.  The  peninsula  of  Sinai  was  included  in  the  geographica! 
conception  Meluhha  (North  and  West  Arabia,  in  antithesis  to  Magan,  which 
denotes  East  and   South  Arabia). 

-  Nielsen,  loc.  cif.,  132.  This  does  not,  however,  follow  from  the  pasture 
ground  at  Horeb.  The  story  probably  intends  to  say  that  Moses  came  inad- 
vertenlly  to  the  sacred  place  of  worship  of  the  Patriarchs. 

VOL.    II.  ' 


98  THE   EXODUS 

Horeh  and  Sinai  as  the  Hohj  Mountain 

The  Mountain  of  God  {har  ha-elohhn)  is  called  Horeb  b}'  the 
E,  Exod.  iii.  l,  xvii.  6,  where,  in  a  sort  of  gloss,  the  niiraculous 
rock  is  called  ''the  rock  in  Horeb."  ^  In  Deuterononiy,  hkewise, 
the  nanie  is  Horeb  (upon  Deut,  xxxiii.  2,  see  foUowing). 

The  mountain  is  called  Sinai  in  the  old  poetical  passages  in 
Deut,  xxxiii.  2  ("Yahveh  came  from  Sinai":  parallel,  "he 
shined  forth  f'roni  Seir")  and  in  Judges  v.  4  f.  :  "  When  Yahveh 
Nvent  forth  out  of  Seir  [parallel,  Edoni,  see  p.  51]  Sinai 
trembled  before  him."  Comp.  Ps.  Ixviii  The  J  also  calls  the 
mountain  Sinai  (upon  Sinai  in  P,  see  later) ;  Exod.  xix.  11,  18 
(Yahveh  descends  upon  Sinai),  xxxiv.  1  ff.  Where  do  these 
traditions  look  for  the  holy  mountain.^  Everything  seems 
to  US  to  point  to  the  region  of  Kade.sh-Barnea.  This  is  the 
territory  of  Seir-Edom.-  The  statement  about  the  Midianite 
territory  agrees  with  this  ("ilTon  "IHN,  Exod.  iii.  1  ;  Midian 
belonging  to  Muzr,  see  p  96),  and  also  the  statement  in 
Exod.  iii.  18,  "three  days'  journey  away,"  where  we  must  bear 
in  niind  a  good  army  road. 

Elijah's  journey  to  Horeb,  the  Mount  of  God,  also  offers  no 
contradiction.  The  number  forty  is  a  motif  number,  and  must 
be  considered  like  the  forty  years  in  P.  After  the  first  day's 
journey  Elijah  is  tired  to  death.  The  old  passages  in  Deut, 
xxxiii.  2  and  Judges  v.  2  ff.,  moreover,  make  it  certain  that 
Elijah  was  wandering  in  the  district  of  Edom-Seir. 

Only  the  latest  sources  of  P  speak  of  the  "  desert  of  Sinai." 
Here  the  .stations  of  the  migration  to  the  Mount  of  God  are 
transferred  to  the  further  district.  to  the  south  of  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai.     Then    the  later   traditions    which    designate    Serbai 

^  Exofl.  xxxiii.  6,  "  from  JMount  Horeb onwaid  "  cevtainly  does  not  l)elong  here. 
The  conjfcture  which  adds  the  wurds  in  xxxiii.  g  ("  whenever  Moses  entered  into 
the  tent,  the  pillar  of  cloud  descended  from  Mount  Horeb"')  is  frail,  siiice  ihese 
fragmentary  pas!=ages  originally  did  not  belong  at  all  to  the  Story  of  Sinai ;  see 
pp.  129  f.  We  follow  Klostermann's  conjecture,  Pciita/eiich,  ii.  44S  :  Ti;n  "irt.7  : 
"  they  tore  their  Ornaments  from  off  them,  hurriedly  Stripping  themselves." 

-  Judges  i.  i6  (iv.  11)  speaks  of  the  sons  of  the  Kenite  (tribe  of  Cain  !),  Ijrother- 
in-Iaw  of  Moses  (Numb.  x.  29,  Hodab).  The  passage  is  attriinited  to  J.  In  this 
case  therefore  the  dwelling-place  of  Jethro-Keguel  is  also,  according  to  J,  to  be 
looked  for  near  the  Israelite  territory. 


HOREB   AND   SINAI  99 

(since  Eusebius  :  the  nunierou.s  inscriptions  in  this  hill-country 
answer  for  the  traditiou  l^eing  more  ancient  ^)  and  Gebel  Musu 
as  Sinai  link  theniselves  to  this.  This  transfeience  to  the 
more  distant  district  agrees  with  the  predilection  of  the  later 
ütopian  geographv,  which  niade  of  the  nahal  Muzri,  the  Nile, 
and  of  'eber  Hannahar,  the  Euphrates  district.- 

^  The  double  name  Sinai  and  Horeb  niay  be  referred  back  to 
a  foundation  in  a  cosmic  idea.  The  Mount  of  God  is  the  ima^e 
of  the  heavenly  throne  of  the  divinity.  And  this  Mount  of  God 
is,  as  we  saw  pp.  23,  i.  f.,  double-peaked.  With  Winckler,  I.e., 
we  would  look  for  a  cosmic  meaning  in  the  names :  Sinai,  corre- 
sponding  to  the  moon  (Underworld  point,  according  to  Egyptian 
reckoning),  Horeb,  the  sun  ^  (highest  point  of  the  cycle  in  the 
hot  region).*  Ebal  and  Gerizim  are  of  the  same  cosmic  import- 
ance ;  see  p.  24,  i.  As  soon  as  this  cosmic  view  comes  into  force, 
the  geographical  Situation  is  inniiaterial.  Perhaps  the  double 
tradition  inay  be  explained  by  this.  Ebal  and  Gerizim  as  the 
mountains  of  the  revelation  of  God  were  not  placed  in  Sichern 
by  every  chronicler,  as  Deut.  xi.  30  shoAvs,  where  they  are  sought 
at  Gilgal-Bethel,  therefore  likewise  another  localisation  of  the 
throne  of  God ;  see  pp.  55  f.  ■•'- 

The  revelation  at  the  burning  thorn  bush  (Exod.  iii.  2  ff.)  is 
from  both  sources.  In  J  the  angel  of  the  Lord  announces  that 
the  people  shall  be  delivered.  In  E,  God  calLs  from  the  burning 
bush.  They  are  to  worship  Him  in  this  mountain  as  the  God 
of  their  fathers. 

Exod,  iii.  5:  '"  Draxc  not  nearer  hitlier !  TcilxC  off  tJuj  shoes, 
for  the  phice  ichereoii  thou  standest  is  lioly  groimcV  This 
corresponds  not  only  to  x-^rabian  custom,  prevalent  to  the 
present  day  in  I.slamic  countries.     Shemot  Rabba  in  iii.  5  says : 

'  M.  A.  Levy  in  Z.D.M.G.,  1860,  363  ff.;  Lepsius,  Denk»iähr  a.  Ägypten 
und  Äthiopien,  vi.,  Bl.  14-26.     The  Inscli.  b.  Etiting,  Sinai- Inschr.,  Berlin,  1891. 

-  See  upon  this  and  also  upon  the  following,  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  360  ff. 

3  h-b,  as  in  Gen.  iii.  24  ;  see  p.  236,  i.  "  Flickering  flame  "  (at  the  north  point 
of  the  universe) ;  upon  hrb,  "  scorching  heat,"  compare  passages  like  Gen.  .xxxi.  40. 
Upon  the  antithesis  Horeb-Sinai,  see  also  p.  24,  n.  3.  Or  is  Horeb  to  be  taken 
as  meaning  "dry,"  as  the  waning  moon,  in  Opposition  to  the  growing  moon? 
The  tvvo  phases  of  the  moon  are  stamped  with  ihe  same  antithesis  as  sun  and 
moon  in  Opposition, 

"*  Comp.  p.  II,  n.  4. 


100  THE    EXODUS 

Likeu i.se  the  piie.sts  serve  baiefbot  in  the  Teniple.  They  have 
retained  the  custoni  to  the  present  time  at  their  penitential 
festivals.^ 

The  tliorn  bush  is  the  throne  of  God.  It  is  not  to  be 
separated  froni  the  mountain  of  God.  In  Deut,  xxxiii.  16  (the 
bles.sing  of  Moses)  God  dwells  in  the  thorn  bush.  The  blazing 
fire  {lahhat-esh  m'itok  ha-sene)  is  the  sanie  as  the  flames  of  fire 
which  in  Gen.  iii.  24  close  the  approach  to  the  throne  of  God.- 

The  xcater  oflife  in  this  Paradise^  we  find  in  the  "  miraculous 
rock  at  Horeb,"  Exod.  xvii.  6. 

The  revelat'ion  of  the  nenne  of  God  designates  Hirn  as  "  I  will 
be,  that  I  am " ;  i.e.  what  God  is,  shall  be  revealed  in  future 
events,  principallv  in  the  sense  of  the  deliverance  here  announced. 
"  Thou  shalt  say  to  the  Israelites :  mrr^  ^  hath  sent  me  to  you.'" 

The  storv  of  the  origin  of  the  oracle  of  Dodona  after  the  flood  of 
Deucalion  offers  to  a  certain  extent  an  analogy.  The  priestesses  of 
the  dove  say  :  "  Zeus  was^  Zeus  is,  Zeus  shall  be,  Ö  thou  great 
Zeus"  (Zevs  171',  Zeus  ia-ri,  Zeus  eo-erat,  oj  yiteyaAe  Zeus),  Paus.,  x.  12,  10. 
Likewise  the  superscription  of  the  temple  at  Sais,  transmitted  by 
Plutarch,  Df  Is.  et  Osir.,  c.  76  :  'Eyw  et/^-t  to  -n-av  to  yeyoi'os,  Kat  oi', 
Ktti  ia-ojxivov  ;  comi).  Plato,  Tim.,  i.  30. 

Exod.  iii.  1 6,  see  p.  9 ;  iü.  1  8,  see  p.  2. 

Exod.  V.  5  :  "  They  are  maiiy — and  ije  ivould  make  tliem  rest." 
Winckler,  O.L.Z.,  19dl,  249,  eniends  the  text  well  by  "the  people 
are  idle"  (ü^Dli  instead  of  DOll)-  Otherwise  there  would  be  no 
contrast.  "  Bv  work,  however,  the  people  would  not  become  less  ; 
for  no  one  in  the  East  works  himself  to  death." 

Exod.  iv.  2  :  The  shepherd's  staff  of  Moses  appears  as  a 
serpent  rod  (comp.  Exod.  vii.  15  ff.).  It  is  not  the  magic  wand 
which    Moses  obtains,   ver.   17,   comp.    20   (the    stafF  of  God). 

1  See  Nathanael  {Berl.  Inst.juJ.,  1902,  p.  79). 

-  Perhaps  vve  may  think  of  the  variant  of  Paradise  lost  as  expressed  in  the 
fairy  tale  form  of  Sleeping  Beauty. 

•''  Pp.  216,  i.  f. ;  compare  the  beginning  of  this  section,  pp.  98  f, 

^  We  agree  with  Wellhausen,  who  wilh  Ihn  Ezra  reads  .ii.T  for  'Thn  (see 
Procksch,  loc.  ciL,  p.  65).  Bvit  it  is  not  a  grammatical  form  (nin:  in  the  mouth  of 
Moses  and  .t-n  in  the  mouth  of  God) ;  it  is  much  more  probable  the  reading  Tnx 
and  E  originale  from  a  time  in  which  they  already  sought  für  a  grammatical 
form  in  the  name.  There  is  an  interesting  analogy  to  the  tetragram  with 
forbidden  pronunciation  in  the  Pythagorean  tetragram,  the  pronouncing  of  which 
was  also  forbidden  ;  comp.  Schultz  in  Keim's  Archiv  für  Geschichte  der  Philosophie, 
1908,  240  ff. 


THE    REVELATION   AT   HOREB  101 

Upon  the  latter,  comp.  p.  58.  Here  for  the  first  time  the 
.Symbol  of  the  serpent  shows  itself,  of  whicli,  as  symbol  of  the 
divinity,  there  is  evideiice  e\ery\vhere  (compare  the  serpent 
monument  of  Petra,  p.  145  ;  the  serpent  raised  up  of  Numb. 
xxi.  8  f. :  nehushtän,  2  Ivings  xviii.  4).  Does  the  change  of 
the  shepherd's  staff  signify  Inauguration  ? 

Exod.  iv.  14  (E);  Moses  is  given  his  brother  Aaron,  the 
Levite,  as  companion  (comp.  vii.  1  and  iv.  16:  Moses  is  God,i 
and  Aaron  his  prophet,  see  p.  93).  "  The  Levite  '^  is  here  an 
official  name,  and  it  should  be  specially  noted  that  /«eci'  denotes 
a  Min^an  priestly  class  (p.  118).  "Thy  brother"^  {ahH-a)  does 
not  necessarily  mean  physical  relation.ship ;  in  passages  like 
Numb.  viii.  26  it  denotes  the  priestly  colleagues.  The 
supposition  that  Aaron  wa.s  a  ^Minsean  priest  who  accompanied 
Moses  cannot  be  proved,^  though  the  form  of  the  name  would 
agree  with  it.'^  The  supposition  would  have  far-reaching  conse- 
quences,  and  would  support  the  hypothesis  on  which  the  whole 
sacrificial  cult,  the  characteristics  of  which  are  given  in  Micah 
vi.  8,^  refers  back  to  Aaron,  and  primarily  has  nothino-  to  do 
with  the  Thora  of  Moses. 

Exod.  iv.  24  ff.  ;  see  p.  2,  n.  2. 

Exod.  V.  \a,  3,  comp.  vii.  15  ff.  (E) :  Mosesand  Aaron  present 
themselves  before  Pharaoh  with  the  words  of  the  "  God  of  the 
Hebrews."  They  wish  to  sacrifice  to  their  god  in  the  desert 
(three  days' journey  away,  at  Horeb  ;  see  pp.  98  f ),  in  Order  that 
he  may  not  fall  upon  them  with  pestilence  or  sword.°  Exod.  viii. 
25,  Pharaoh  makes  the  concession  :  sacrifice  to  your  God  in  the 
land  (in  Egyptian  territory).     The  antithesis    is  they  wish  to 

^  This  is  of  importance  to  the  meaning  of  "God  spake  unto  Moses."  The 
Oracles  of  Moses  are  the  words  of  God. 

-  See  Nielsen,  p.  138,  who  is  frankly  not  Iroubled  by  the  sources.  The  sources 
used  by  the  editor  already  mixed  with  it  the  other  tradition,  which  is  stamped  by 
J,  and  which  connected  Moses  and  his  family  with  the  tribe  of  Levi,  for  which 
the  genealogy  in  Exod.  vi.  16  ff.  was  invented.  The  designation  ah  may  have 
iielped. 

"  The  name  'Aharon  is  with  the  determinative  (W  ( =(?;i)  specifically  Minsean  ; 
comp.  Salhän,  'Alahan  in  the  inscriptions :  perhaps  there  is  a  direct  translation 
in  the  inscription  (Euting,  25)  in  the  name  Aharön  (Hommel). 

■•  Erbt,  Die  Hebräer,  p.  82. 

•'  Upon  the  punishments,  comp.  Ezek.  xiv.  21. 


102  THE   EXODUS 

"  make  a  pilgrimage  "  (j/ahoggft,  Exod.  v.  1)  ;  ^  the  word  still  lives 
in  the  Arabian  word  for  a  pilgrini  festival  (hc^gg) ;  in  Hebrew  it 
is  the  designation  for  all  three  pilgrimage  festivals.  At  this 
pilgriniage  sacrifices  and  burnt-ofFerings  weve  to  be  niade  ;  Exod. 
X.  25. 

Exod.  vii.  1  ;  see  p.  93.  Moses  is  silent,  Aaron  Speaker, 
as  amongst  the  Ismaelites  every  Mahdi  is  a  r^ämit  (silent) 
and  has  a  nntlq  (speaker).  Here  also  \ve  have  to  do  with 
the  antitheses  representing  the  Universe,  as  we  found  them, 
for  example,  at  p.  51.' 

77/f  Feast  of  the  Pesah 

What  was  the  festival  thev  wished  to  celebrate  in  the  desert 
at  the  ^Mountain  of  God  't  It  was  certainly  the  feast  of  the 
Pesah,  which  was  celebrated  on  the  night  of  the  exodus  after 
the  pilgriniage  had  been  delayed  by  the  refusal  of  the  Pharaoh. 
The  Statements  of  time  in  Exod.  xii.  1  ff.,  which  belong  in  the 
present  text  to  P,  niay  also  be  taken  as  the  record  of  E  :  at 
the  day  of  the  füll  nioon  of  the  first  month  of  the  year  is  the 
feast  of  the  Pesah.  Pesah  means  "  Passover,"  Babylonian 
nib'iru.  "  Yahveh  passes  over."^  The  background  of  astral 
niythology^  niay  be  derived  either  froni  the  sun  or  from  the 
moon  {nibiru  of  the  sun  =  summer  solstice ;  nib/ru  of  the  nioon 
=  full  moon  in  the  critical  month  of  the  solstice,  or  of  the 
equinox,  just  as  it  niay  be ;  see  pp.  37,  i.  f.).  Here  it  has  to  do 
with  the  moon.  The  night  of  the  füll  moon  of  the  new  year 
is  "  the  night  of  the  D''"1DÖ)  for  Yahveh,''  i.e.  the  night  of 
Observation    of   the    moon    {mazzatuY      This  night,  according 

'  J  ?     The  conception  agrees  very  well  in  this  meaning  with  the  account  of  E. 

^  See  Wincklcr,  Ex  or.  lux,  ii.  i,  p.  35. 

^  The  credit  belongs  to  Nielsen  of  proving  that  the  Mosaic  leligion  foimed 
itself  in  surroundings  which  had  astral  forms  of  worship,  and,  in  fact,  where  the 
moon  had  predominance. 

■•  This  does  not  preclude  them  from  thinking  also  of  a  play  of  words  upon 
pashahu,  "  to  appease  (the  angry  divinity)"  ;  see  Zimmern,  Beitr.,  92. 

'  Eclipse  of  the  moon  may  occur  upon  the  night  of  the  fvill  moon  ;  see  upon 
this  and  upon  Pesah,  especially  Winckler,  Krii.  Sehr.,  iv.  65  ff.  ;  M.  F.A.G.,  1901, 
206  ;  and  Nielsen,  pp.  144  ff.  The  description  of  the  festival  in  P  is  also,  according 
to  the  lunar  calendar :  upon  the  tenlh  day  (seven  days  after  new  moon)  the 
choosing  of  the  sacrifice  ;  upon  the  evening  of  the  fourleenlh,  the  sacrifice,  the 


FE  AST   OF  THE   PASSOVER  103 

to  Ba])ylonian  view,  is  mied  bv  Ninib-Mars,  to  whoni  the 
Nibiru  point  belongs ;  he  is  called  mushm/t  biili,  'Mie  who 
kills  the  cattle,"  therefore  they  ofFered  first-born  cattle.  The 
same  idea  hes  at  the  root  of  the  Pesah  of  the  God  of  the 
Hebrews.  Yahveh  "goes  up"  iyözc^)  over  Egypt,  cuhninates 
('■abartf),  and  slays  the  first-born  {all  first-born,  see  Exod.  xiii. 
12  f.),  but  the  destroyer  "passes  by ''  the  houses  of  the  Childi'en 
of  Israel.  The  punishment  threatened  for  the  Omission  of  the 
sacrificial  feast  (^Exod.  v.  3^^)  faüs  upon  the  Egyptians. 

The  passing  over  of  the  destroyer  is  attained  (Exod.  xii.  7) 
by  putting  blood  upon  the  doorposts. 

TITD,  doorposts,  is  the  Assyrian  mansazu.  The  word  sig'nifies 
•'•Standing  place/'  as  doorposts^  " Standing  place,"  hat  exoc/icn, 
''Standing  place  of  the  divinity."  The  obelisks  at  the  gate  of  the 
temple  at  Thebes  are  called  in  Assyrian  manca~u;  see  p.  188,  n.  1. 
What  the  pillars  at  the  entrance  are  to  the  Temple  (see  l  Kings  vii. 
15  ff.,  and  compare  Arnos  ix.  7,  where  pillars  and  threshold  are 
brought  into  connection  Avith  the  altar),  the  doorposts  are  to  the 
private  house.  Therefore  the  gloss  at  Exod.  xxi.  6,  "  then  his  master 
shall  bring  him  unto  God,"  has  added,  "and  shall  bring  him 
to  the  door,  or  unto  tJre  doorpost."  ^  VVhen  the  Israelites  brought 
something  sacred  to  the  entrance  of  the  house  (Exod.  xii.  7  ;  Gen. 
iv.  7  ;  Deut.  vi.  8  ;  Isa.  Ivii.  8),  the  custom  was  upon  the  same  line. 
The  sacred  nTIT??  of  the  later  Jews,  cases  fastened  to  the  doorposts 
containing  the  passage  from  Deut.  vi.  4-9,  written  upon  parchuient, 
take  their  name  from  the  (sacred)  doorposts.- 

According  to  the  Aiabian  view  the  doorposts  protect  from  hostile  powers.  To 
rebnke  a  child  upon  the  threshold  brings  misfurtune  ;  M.D.P.V.,  1899,  10, 
No.  16.  Comp.  TrumbuU,  The  Tlireshold  Covenant.  Upon  the  threshold  as 
throne  of  divinity,  see  Joshua  vi.  26.  The  horseshoe  at  the  threshold  of  the 
door  points  to  a  related  Germanic  idea  ;  the  horseshoe  is  probably  the  sign  of 
Wotan. 

The  striking  of  the  doorposts  with  blood  presupposes  in 
the  religion  of  the  Patriarchs  an  acquaintance  with  a  sin- 
ofFenng,^  of  which  our  sources  of  the  Israelite  primitive  histories 

night  of  the  füll  moon,  is  the  time  of  sacrifice  (at  morning,  when  the  moon  goes 
down,  everything  niust  be  finished,  Exod.  xii  7  ff. )  ;  then  seven  days,  from  füll 
moon  to  the  last  quarter,  eating  the  unleavened  bread.  The  day  of  füll  moon 
and  the  sevenlh  day  after  are  days  of  rest  (Exod.  xii.  14-20)  ;  see  pp.  202,  i.  f. 

^  See  Winckler,  O.L.Z.,  11,01,  250. 

-  Upon  the  <pu\aKT-i]pia,  (protection  against  evil  spirits  ;  the  inezuza  is  also  a 
<pv\aKTripov),  sse  B.xV.  T.,  loz. 

•'  DT3  .n':'n  mis;  i'.s",  "  no  atonement  without  blood,"  Yoma  ^a  and  others. 


104  THE   EXODUS 

say  iiothing ;  see  p.  2.  But  the  ashcnm  which  were  found 
in  Canaan,  and  which  also  were  stricken  with  blood,  take  the 
place  of  the  doorposts,  and  give  evidence  of  the  rite  in  the 
pre-Israelite  age  of  Canaan  ;  see  pp.  344,  i.,  2.  The  destroying 
angel  passes  over — here  in  the  sin-offering  the  bloody  work 
is  already  acconiplished  ;  this  is  the  original  meaning  of  it. 
Of  the  "  striking  of  the  threshold  with  blood  ''  there  is  perhaps 
evidence  also  in  the  Babvlonian  Tables  of  Ritual.  It  is  said 
theie,^  No.  26.  3.  20 : 

'■  The  exorcist  shall  go  out  to  .  .  .  .  the  gate,  offer  a  sheep  in 
the  gate  of  the  palace,  Avith  the  blood  of  this  lamb  the  lintels  (?) 
.   .   .   ."     It  may  possibly  be  restored  1-{T)\^)  =  askuppalu. 

W.  R.  Smith^  Religion  of  the  Semites,  records  the  Arab  custom  of 
sprinklina;  tlieir  own  blood  u])on  the  doorposts  of  the  injured  one. 
Trumbull,  The  Threshold  Corc/UDit,  and  Curtiss,  Ursemitische  Religio?!, 
bring  authentic  proofs  from  the  customs  of  the  people  of  the 
present-day  East.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias, 
according  to  the  observations  of  Curtiss,  each  family  offered  a  white 
sheep  to  their  ancestors,  and  sprinkled  with  the  blood  the  western 
wall  of  the  Maqam  (p.  i\).  Or  they  sprinkle  the  blood  of  the 
sacrifice  upon  the  doorposts  and  threshold  of  the  Maqani  (p.  206), 
or  they  make  a  sign  with  the  blood  in  form  of  a  T  (]).  217). 
In  Irak  they  niai'k  every  door  with  sacrificial  blood,  and  witli  the 
sign  of  the  bleeding  band  (p.  2-i3) ;  the  natives  explain  that  they 
wish  to  announce  the  sacrifice  to  the  Holy  One  (p.  264).  Curtiss 
rightly  compares  (p.  259)  the  rites  recorded  by  Ezekieh  where  the 
priest  must  sprinkle  with  the  blood  of  the  sin-offering  the  doorposts 
of  the  Temple^  the  four  corners  of  the  altar,  and  the  posts  of  the 
door  to  the  inner  court. 

Exod.  xii.  2,  see  p.  46,  i.  ;  Exod.  xii.  3,  see  p.  IQS,  i.,  n.  1  ;  Exod. 
xii.  7,  p.  2  ;  Exod.  xiv.  21  f.,  see  pp.  195,  i.  f.  and  93. 

Exod.  xiv.  24  :  "  Yahveh  aro-ie  in  ihepillar  offire  and  of  cloiid.'''' 
When  in  Gen.  xv.  God  passes  as  a  smoking  furnace  and  as 
a  Üaming  fire  through  the  portions  of  the  sacrifice,  the  sanie 
idea  lies  at  the  root.  The  Assyrian  king  Esarhaddon  receives 
the  oracle :  "  I,  Ishtar  of  Arbela,  will  cause  snioke  to  rise  to 
left  of  thee  and  fire  to  right  of  thee."  -  And  the  classical 
writers  offen  say  :  per  noctem  flamnia,  per  dieni  fumans  significat 
sociis  hostimn  adventum. 

^  See  Zimmern,  loc.  cit.,  p.  127  ;  but  comp.  A'.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  599. 

-  Fig.  42,  Ishtar  represented  as  a  Valkyre,  may  serve  to  Supplement  pji.  122,  i.  f. 


PILGRIMAGE   TO   THE   MOUNT   OF   GOD     105 

Exod.  xiv.  24  :  When  the  morn'ing  icafch  cavie.  Three  luiiar 
night-watches  are  counted ;  comp.  Judges  vii.  19,  1  Sam  xi.  11, 
and  see  p.  27.  They  were  retained  in  the  Temple  service 
until  the  Roman  period.  In  the  same  way  the  Babylonians 
count  three  night-watches  ;  bar  arHu,  shad  mushi,  sliad  urri} 

■Jfi  The  SHcred  jnlgrimage  to  the  Mountain  of  God  is  accomplished 
in  P  according  to  calendar  divisions,  which  agree  step  by  step  with 
the  moon.'-  This  is  the  more  noteworthy  as,  after  the  arrival  at 
Sinai,  these  hniar  datings  totally  disappear.  The  astral  character  of 
the  Hebrew  cult  then  coiitinues  to  show  itself  only  in  the  Symbols. 
The  Statements  of  places  in  P  deride  geograplw.  It  is  a  celestial 
journey  to  the  throne  of  God.  The  geographical  names  must 
contain  niotifs  which  up  to  the  present  we  cannot  explain.  The 
calendar  dating  of  Piharot,  xiv.  20^  has  been  lost.  According  to  the 
remains  of  the  text  which  we  ascribe  to  P  it  seems  as  thoiigh  it 
was  light  for  the  Israelites,  whilst  the  darkness  of  the  night 
hindered  the  Egyptians — therefore,  time  of  the  neu'  vioon.  Upon 
the  day  after  the  night  of  the  füll  moon  of  the  second  month  they 
came  to  the  wilderness  of  Sin  (lunar  name),  which  lies  between 
Elim^  and  Sinai.  E.xod.  xvi.  9-10 :  Moses  commands  them  "to  appear 
before  Yahveh  "  ;  they  looked  towards  the  wilderness  (towards  the 
East) ;  the  glory  of  Yahveh  appeared  in  the  heaven :  ^  the  füll 
moon  rises  !  Whoever  has  seen  the  füll  moon  rise  in  the  East  under- 
stands  how  it  can  embody  the  "glory  of  the  Lord."  Also  here  the 
day  of  rest  {shahat  of  Yahveh)  ^  is  strongly  emphasised  with  the 
hinar  festival^as  at  the  Pesah  festival  of  füll  moon  (eh.  xii.).  Exod.  xvii. 
1  :  the  Israelites  journey  out  of  the  wilderness  of  Sin  •'  by  stages  "  : 
lemas'ehcvi.  The  tei'm  is  peculiar  to  the  story  of  the  migration  as 
given  in  P  (comp.  Numb.  x.  6,  12,  28;  xxxiii.  1  f),  and  we  have 
already  found  it  in  Gen.  xiii.  S  in  the  motifs  which  mark  the  migi-a- 
tion  of  Abraham  as  a  lunar  journey  (p.  19);  the  "stages"  must 
recall  the  lunar  stages.  Upon  the  day  of  the  new  moon  of  the 
third  month  they  are  (Exod.  xix.  1  ;  comp,  xviii.  5)  at  the  holy  moun- 
tain.     Three  days  it  is  dark  moon.      During  these  days  they  were  to 

^  See  Delitzsch,  Z.A.,  ii.  2S4  ;  Schiaparelli,  Astronomie,  Ix.xxiv.  89  ; 
Matt.  xxiv.  25.  Against  it,  Berachoth,  T^b  :  Our  rabbis  teach  that  the  night  is 
divided  into  four  watches  (solar  reckoning). 

-  Nielsen,  loc.  cit. 

••  The  motifs  in  the  previous  passages  of  the  text  before  us  are  obscure  :  shnr, 
bitter  water  (Rcv.  viii.  10  f.  offers  a  key  to  the  riddle  ;  conipare  also  the  bitter 
water  in  the  journey  of  Alexander,  Ps.  Callisthenes,  iii.  17),  Massah  and  Meribah 
(here,  according  to  Deut,  xxxiii.  8,  chief  points  of  a  story  which  has  been  lost 
must  have  lain),  and  Elim  with  twelve  wells  and  seventy  palms. 

■*  Nielsen,  p.  151,  pj- ;  compare  the  corresponding  Arabian  word. 

5  As  shabatön  designated  with  the  Minsean  article,  see  Aharön,  p.  loi.  The 
Priestly  Code  shows  here  also  ancicnt  ingredients. 


106  THE    EXODUS 

pvepare  by  ablutioiis  for  the  ajjpeai'ance  of  God  (xix,  10  fF  in  a 
connection  which  belongs  to  the  previous  JE  text).  Upon  the 
third  da}'  (xix.  l6),  wheii  the  trunipet  sounded,  they  were  to  go  to 
tlie  mountain.  This  tliird  day,  therefore,  is  the  day  of  new  moon. 
The  triimpet  (comp.  Xumb.  x.  10 ;  comp.  Ps.  Ixxxi.  4)  announces  the 
new  moon  (Hilal ;  see  p.  110,  i.,  n.  3).  Upon  this  day  God  reveals 
Himself.  Now  follows  in  P  again  a  seven-day  period,  Exod.  xxiv.  l6  : 
"  The  glory  of  Yahveh  was  enthroned  upon  Mount  Sinai ;  but  the 
cloud  covered  It  six  days  long  :  upon  the  seventh  day  he  called  to 
Moses  out  of  the  cloud."  The  journey  to  the  throne  of  God, 
clothed  by  P  in  the  garment  of  the  lunar  month,  is  now  ended. 
Lunav  dates  cease.  The  place  of  the  revelation  of  God  is,  from 
Sinai  onwards,  in  'ohel  mo'ed.  -K 

Exod.  XV.   2,  see  p.    14;    Exod.   xx.  4,  see  p.   8,  i.,  n.   4;   Exod. 
xxi.  6,  see  p.  103. 


CHAFTER  XIX 

ISRAELITE    AND    BABYI.OXIAX    LEGISLATION 

The  chiu-acteristic  of  the  Mosaic  religion  lies  in  the  conception 
of  God.  God  is  the  holy  one,  that  is  to  say,  the  good  in  Him- 
self.  He  is  zealous  for  good,  because  any  deviation  brings 
destruction  lipon  inen,  and  upon  the  other  band  He  is  the 
merciful  The  leHgious  Community  gathered  together  by  Moses 
at  Sinai  was  to  reflect  the  nature  of  God  and  so  to  become  the 
conscience  of  the  people.  Tlie  moving  power  was  to  be 
gratitude  for  deliverance,  and  hope  of  further  deliverance. 

We  find  amongst  the  Babylonians  also  a  legislation  attri- 
buted  to  the  deity,  graven  in  stone,  in  the  code  of  laws  of 
Hamnuirabi  (fig.  132  f.).^  Joshua  also  appears  to  have  founded 
his  judgments  upon  codified  laws  engraven  on  stone  ;  Joshua  viii. 
32.-  The  moral  requirements  set  out  in  the  Babylonian  texts 
are  coiitained  in  collective  prohibitions,  which  include  the  second 
and  third  to  tenth  commandments.  The  second  commandment 
even  has  its  Babylonian  counterpart ;  see  pp.  227,  i.,  n.  1  ;  228,  i. 

1  The  block  (fig.  133)  is  2.^  metres  high.  The  five  lower  columns  have  been 
scratched  out  by  the  Elamites  who  captured  the  stele.  The  replacement  by  an 
Elamite  inscription  has  been,  for  some  unlvnown  reason,  left  undone.  The  texl 
can  be  partly  supplemented  from  ancient  transcripts.  The  block  is  in  the  form  of 
a  phallus.  We  drew  attention  to  the  same  custom  with  the  boundary  stones  in 
Röscher,  Lex.,  iii.  pr.  66.  The  picture  represents  the  investiture  of  Hammurabi 
with  the  ring  and  staff  by  the  Sun-god  ;  see  p.  6l,  n.  I.  H.  Winckler  gives  in 
Die  Gesetze  Haimimrabis,  1904,  a  handy  edition  of  the  text,  with  transcription 
and  Iranslation.  Other  works  on  the  subject  are  also  noted  there.  D.  H.  MüUer's 
hypothesis  about  a  primeval  law  from  which  the  H.  C.  as  well  as  the  civil  legisla- 
tion of  the  Israelites  originates,  is  not  ready  for  any  judgment  to  be  pronounced 
upon  it. 

-  It  is  otherwise  in  Joshua  xxiv.  26  f.,  where  the  laws  were  written  in  a  book  ; 
only  after  ihat  a  stone  was  erected. 

107 


108     ISR AELITE    AND    BABYLONIAN    LEGISLATION 


We  also  find  evidence  of  the  consecratioii  of  feast-days  by  prayer 
and  praisc.  It  i.s  true  the  niotives  are  diff'erent  to  those  of  the 
Mosaic  law.  In  Babvlonia  the  appeal  to  religious  experience  is 
niissing,  of  which  the  first  principle  i.s  grateful  worship  of  God. 
The  pessimistic  temper  of  the  Babylonian  poets  (pp.  228,  i.  ff.) 
laments  the  ab.sence  of  such  experience.     And  for  the  rest,  the 


Fig.  132. — Ilamimtrabi  receiving  the  laws  from  the  Sun-gud.     Scene 
on  the  Upper  part  of  the  block  of  diorite.     Comp.  fig.  133. 

law   of  love    to    hi.s    neighbour   and  the  control   of  envy  and 
selfishness  are  absent.^ 

In  what  character  were  the  laws  on  the  tables  of  stone 
written  ?  In  Exod.  xxxii.  Iß  (Elohist,  the  more  ancient  source) : 
God  himself  engraved  the  writing ;  in  Deut,  xxvii.  8 :  Moses 
wrote  the  laws  upon  the  the  tables.  ^Vccording  to  the  dis- 
coveries  of  the  Amarna  period  it  is  to  be  assunied  that  Moses 

'  BvU  comp.  p.  112,  n.  2,  Upon  this  subject,  see  J.  Jeremias,  Moses  und 
Ham/iturabi,  2nd  ed.,  54.  For  corresponding  laws  in  the  Egyptian  Book  of  the 
Dead,  see  Leist,  Gräho-italische  Reclüsgeschichte^  pp.  758  ff. 


THE    CODE   OF   HAMMURABI 


109 


viii.    1   calls   the 


wrote  in  Babylonian  cuneiform.  When  Isa. 
Hebrew  alphabetic  writing  "  the  writing  of 
a  man  "  in  antithesis  to  the  cuneiform,^  it 
shows  that  the  cuneiform  character  was  held 
to  be  hieratic  in  Isaiah"s  time  and  was 
still  in  use.  The  expression  in  Exod.  xxxii. 
16  might  then  be  a  paraphra.se  for  ■'cunei- 
form writing." 

The  Ethics  of  the  HA:\[MrKAUi  Code - 

The  foundation  of  political  life  is  the 
fcimily,  the  clan^  with  the  father  as  head. 
The  family  rests  lipon  monogamy.  The  ac- 
ceptanee  of  a  secondary  wife  and  the  allow- 
auce  of  coneubines  is  legally  regulated,  see 
pp.  3i  ff.  That  marriage  between  brother 
and  sistev  was  pei*mitted  may  be  concluded 
e  silentio ;  marriages  between  parent  and 
cliildj  also  with  stepchildren  and  children- 
in-law^  are  strictly  forbidden. 

The  mai'riage  follows  upon  a  contract  of 
marriage  through  the  buying  of  the  bride, 
the  bridegroom  giving  a  present  to  the  fatlier, 
paying  the  pvice  of  a  wife,'^  and  receiving  the 
dowry.  The  wife  is  the  property  of  the 
liusband.  He  may  seil  her,  or  foi'ce  her  to 
work,  for  a  fault.  If  the  wife  tran.sgresses, 
she  is  sent  away.  Divorce  is  easy.  It  is 
enough  for  the  man  to  say,  "Thou  art  not 
my  Avife."^  If  there  are  snfficient  groimds 
for  Separation,  the  man  says :  "I  divorce 
thee."  He  need  not  then  restore  what  she  brought  with  her,  he 
ma}-  even  retain  her  as  a  servant  {H.C.,  1-il).  The  wife  can 
also    obtain    Separation     on     account     of    ill-natured     neglect,   and 

1  Thus  Windeier,  F.,  iii.  164  ff.  :  Krit.  Shriften,  ii.  116. 

-  Agreeing  essentially  with  T-  Jeremias,  Moses  und  Hatiimiuabi,  2nd  ed., 
Leipzig,  J.  C.  Hinricbs,  1903.  Here  also  the  noticeable  points  of  agreement  in  the 
bock  ofthe  collection  of  laws  (Exod.  xxi.-xxiii.)  with  the  H.C.  are  presented  and 
elucidated.  Compare  further,  Öttli,  Das  Gesetze  Hammurahis  tind  die  Thora 
Israels,  Leipzig,  1903  ;  D.  H.  Müller,  Die  Gesetze  Hatiimiirabis,  Vienna.  1903. 
For  the  complete  understanding  of  the  picture,  in  some  passages  the  definitions  of 
Ancient-Babylonian  civil  law,  attested  in  other  places,  are  given  (see  Meiszner, 
A.B.,  xi.). 

'  firkalii,  the  mohar  of  the  Ancient  L^rael  law  ;  see  p.  38, 

^  See  Kohlerand  Peiser, [/ö^-.  cif.,  120. 


Fig.  133.— Block  ofdio- 
rite  containing  the  laws 
of  Hamniurabi. 


110     ISR AELITE    AND   BABYLONIAN    LEGISLATIOiN 

on  account  of  legally  determined  neglt-ct  {H.C.,  142).  Banish- 
ment  of  the  man  under  some  circumstances  nullifies  the  marriage 
{H.C..  136).  A  wife's  adultery  is  ))uni.shed  by  death  by  drowning 
of  both  parties  ;  the  husband  may  forgive  the  wife,  the  king  may 
forgive  the  adulterer;  comp.  p.  69,  n.  4. 

About  children's  edueation  there  are  110  legal  regulations  m  the 
H.C.  The  regulations  about  adoption  are  very  ample.  It  occurred 
not  only  in  childless  marriages,  bat  often  Avith  the  object  of  being 
taken  into  a  certain  guild  of  handicraft  {H.C,  1 88  ff.).  Transgression 
against  the  authority  ^  of  the  father  was  heavily  punished.  It  was 
followed  bv  expulsion  of  the  child  frum  the  relationship,  but,  as  in 
Deut.  xxi.  18  f.,  only  upon  legal  decision  {H.C,  l6S). 

Slavery  follows  upon  capture  in  war,  and  through  breach  of  civil 
law  or  by  law  of  punishment.  The  law  of  slavery  is  stern  and 
di-eadful.  The  slave  is  a  thing,  and  his  lord  has  the  power  of  life 
and  death  over  him.^  Service  for  crime  expired  by  the  H.C.  in 
four  years  {H.C  1 17).^  The  crime  was  then  considered  in  all  cases 
as  worked  out.  Against  personal  injury  the  foreign  slave,  at  any  rate, 
was  protected  :  injury  to  him  meant  injury  to  the  laws  of  property. 

As  property,  the  law  gave  protection  to  goods,  honour,  and  life  ; 
sharraq  icldak,  "the  thief  shall  be  killed  "  {H.C,  ?).'  Calumniators 
were  punished.  Anyone  breaking  a  betrothal,  by  denunciation  of 
the  bridegroom,  might  not  marry  the  maiden  whose  bridegroom  he 
had  vilified  {H.C,  16I  ;  what  wi.sdom  !).  Special  punishment  is 
threatened  for  false  witness  before  the  judge  {H.C,  S  f.  ;  comp. 
Deut.  xix.  15).  Of  capital  crime  only  the  instigation  to  husband 
murder  is  mentioned  {H.C,  153). 

The  punishments  are  gruesome :  death  ;  the  H.C  has  ten 
variations  of  mutilation.^ 

Talio  (repayment)  rules  the  laws  of  punishment  in  the  H.C.     In 

^  Not  because  it  was  a  breach  of  piety,  as  J.  Jeremias  takesit.  The  disobedient 
son  has  injiired  the  rights  of  property  of  the  father.  The  I/.C.  is  silent  about  the 
mother.  "  Thou  shalt  know  thy  father  and  thy  mother "  says  the  law  of  Moses. 
Making  the  mother  äqual  illustrates  the  higher  level,  as  does  the  promise  of  the 
blessing  of  continued  inheritance. 

-  Also  in  the  book  of  laws  the  slave  is  keseph,  but  his  life  and  health  are 
protected. 

•"'  Comp.  Exod.  xxi.  2  ;  Lev.  xxv.  40  ;  Deut.  xv.  12  ;  and  Jer.  xxxiv.  8  ff.  :  six 
years,  in  any  case  only  tili  the  year  of  Jubilee.  Upon  the  social  progress 
shown  here,  see  p.  in,  n.  3. 

^  Stern  punishment,  as  in  the  Ancient-Germanic  laws,  passing  on  also  into  the 
"modern  time"  (for  instance,  under  James  I.  in  England).  The  shape  of  the 
number  7  of  the  law — so  say  the  old  populär  preachers — shows  the  picture  of  the 
gallows.     The  thief  was  hanged. 

^  The  Thora  only  speaks  once  of  cutting  off  the  hand,  in  one  special  crime 
(Deut.  xxv.  12)  ;  this  is  an  accidentaliy  retained  remnant  of  ancient  gruesome 
ciistom.  Upon  the  loss  of  an  eye  for  undutifulness  in  a  son  {H.  C,  193),  compare 
the  figurative  speech  in  Prov.  xxx.  17. 


ETHICS    OF   THE    CODE    OF   HAMMURABI     111 

the  same  words  as  in  the  H.C.  (for  example,  196  f.,  300)^  we  meet 
with  tcdio  in  whole  divisions  of  the  Thora  :  an  eye  for  an  eye,  a 
tooth  for  a  tooth,  a  bone  for  a  bone.  ßut  in  every  case  there  is 
here,  with  the  Single  exception  of  the  murder  before  mentioned,  a 
compensation  allowed,  an  abatement  of  the  lalio  by  penance  or  by 
fine.^  The  law  of  Mishna  is  allowed  by  the  change,  often  seen  in 
the  Thora  also,  of  the  retributory  punishment  into  a  fine^  dictated 
by  the  injured  i)arty. 

"^^engeance  for  blood  is  already  overcome  in  the  H.C.,-  not  hoAv- 
ever  by  moral,  bat  by  social  progress  ;  ^  the  political  power  safe- 
guarded  legal  rights. 

The  measure  of  guilt  is  in  the  H.C.  only  the  degree  of  injury  to 
property>  For  an  unsuccessful  Operation  a  doctor's  hand  was  cut 
oft"  (H.C,  218).  The  injury  arising  from  a  breach  of  the  law  is 
called  ar/iii,  whilst  the  objective  injury  is  ealled  (litUii  ;  see  p.  225,  i. 
Bat  there  is  a  disposition  to  a  higher  conception  of  law  to  be  seen 
in  the  differentiation  between  wilful  and  un{)remeditated  physical 
injury,  HC,  206  (the  same  disposition  in  the  law  of  the  book  of 
the  covenant,  Exod.  xxi    18  ff.). 

As  evidcnce  they  allowed,  together  with  the  word  of  witnesses 
and  oath,  the  judgment  of  God.  The  defendant  had  to  undergo 
the  ordeal  by  water.^ 

^  Compare  with  this  n.  3,  below. 

-  In  the  Thora  revenge  for  bloodshed  is  still  in  evidence  (see  Judges  viii.  18-21, 
and  comp.  2  Saoi.  xxi.  I-4),  bat  it  is  mitigated  by  the  law  of  sanctuary  (Joshua  xx.) 
and  liy  the  religious  fundamental  law  that  Yahveh  is  the  proper  avenger.  Accord- 
ing  to  Deut,  xxvii.  24,  it  appears  to  be  a  family  matter  to  exercise  the  right  of 
avenging  bloodshed. 

^  This  social  progress  is  shown  also  by  the  before-mentioned  change  of  falio 
into  penance.  x-^ccording  to  the  ruling  conception  of  justice,  the  idea  of  iah'o 
originales  in  a  time  before  the  State  ruled  over  the  family,  and  the  court  for 
broken  lavvs  was  the  family  feud  (comp,  vengeance  for  bloodshed).  The  talio  is 
as  E  Jeremias  informs  us,  a  first  ingcnious  attempt  to  find  z.  Just  measure  of 
punishment,  which  we  are  still  searching  out  to-day.  In  the  same  way  the 
development  of  the  law  npon  slavery  mentioned  at  p.  iio  is  a  Step  of  social,  biit 
not  necessarily  moral,  progress,  in  regard  to  which  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
(für  instance,  in  Rome)  the  estate  of  slavery  was  not  of  political  uniuiportance. 
The  legal  form  on  the  monuments,  slave  =  goods,  does  not  preclude  their  other- 
wise  good  treatment  in  the  patriarchal  age.  Wife,  son,  and  daughter  were  also 
placed  under  the  absolute  power  of  the  paterfamilias. 

^  In  the  Thora  the  offence  against  the  divinity  decides  the  measure. 

^  See  Winckler,  Cod.  Hatiiiii.,  p.  9,  n.  4.  Ordeal  by  water  in  cases  of  adultery 
also  in  H.  C,  132  ;  see  ib.,  p.  38,  n.  2.  The  Israelite  law  recognised  the  judgment 
of  God  by  the  accursed  water,  Numb.  v.  15  ff.  (compare  the  Tractat  Sotar,  which 
treats  of  the  ordeal  of  the  bitter  water  for  those  suspected  of  adultery),  and  by 
judgment  by  lot,  Exod.  xxii.  S,  and  elsewhere.  See  Kohler  and  Peiser,  !oc.  eil. 
132.  In  Exod.  xxxii.  20  the  people  were  made  to  drink  water  mixed  with  metal 
dust  (J)  Whoever  escaped  with  his  iife  was  held  to  be  blameless.  That  is  the 
meaning.    The  experience  was  different  in  the  E.     Exod.  xxxii.  26  :  Let  those  who 


112     ISRAELITE   AND   BABYLONIAN   LEGISLATION 

Humaue  dispositions  sliow  in  H.C.,  32  :  deliverance  of  a  prisoner 
by  his  own  people  ;  H.C.,  IS  :  remittance  of  taxes  in  bad  harvests  ; 
H.C.,  ll6  :   protection  of  life  and  limb  to  prisoners  for  debt. 

For  the  i-est  an  absence  of  ethics  miist  be  granted.  There  is  no 
i-espect  of  individuals,  except  where  the  paterfamilias  comes  in 
question,  whose  property  may  not  be  injured.  Together  with  this 
the  tribal  feeling  is  strongly  marked.^ 

The  essential  differences  -  to  the  Israelite  Thora  are  the 
following : — 

\.  There  is  no  control  of  kist. 

2.  There  is  no  limitation  of  selfishness  through  altruism. 

3.  There  is  nowhere  to  be  found  the  postulate  of  charity. 

4.  There  is  nowhere  to  be  found  the  reHgious  motif  which 
recognises  sin  as  the  destruction  of  the  people  because  it  is  in 
Opposition  to  the  fear  of  God. 

In  the  H.C.  every  trace  of  reHgious  thought  is  absent ; 
behind  the  Israelite  law  stands  everywhere  the  ruling  Avill  of  a 
holy  God,  it  bears  throughout  a  religious  character. 

Bihi.icai.-Babyi.oxian  Relatiokship  in  thk  Sacrificiai,  Ritual^ 

Also  in  the  phenonienon  niost  peculiar  to  the  religious  life,  in 
the  essence  of  the  sacrifice,  parallel  phenoniena  show  themselves 
between  the  Babylonian  and  the  Biblical  Thora.  But  it  is 
exactly  in  this  point  that  it  is  shown  that  Israel  foUowed  its 
own  and  a  higher  way. 

belong  to  God  come  unto  me  !  The  others  were  slain.  The  Slavs  also  have  fire 
and  water  ordeals ;  see  Grimm,  Deutsche  Rechlsal/erliimer,  933  ff.  Amongst  the 
Greeks  we  find  passing  through  the  flames  and  over  red-hot  iron  ;  Soph.,  Antiq., 
264.  There  is  the  same  judgment  of  God,  for  instance,  amongst  the  Dshagga 
negroes.  There  is  also  evidence  of  it  amongst  many  other  people  ;  compare 
VVilutzky,  Vo7-geschichle  des  Rechts,  1903.  Trial  by  ordeal  also  held  good  in  the 
Christian  era.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  sanctioned  by  the  Church  from  the  eighth 
Century  ;  see  Augusti,  Denkmäler  der  Christi.  Archäologie,  10. 

1  Still  so  in  the  East.  However  much  separate  branches  of  a  faniily  may  liate 
each  other,  in  the  faniily  confederacy  there  is  no  breach  of  law. 

-  In  the  ist  edilion  we  would  have  spoken  of  "  want  of."  Justice  demands 
that  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  Thora  presents  both  law  and  religious  ethics 
in  one  ;  the  Üecalogue,  for  example,  contains  rules,  not  criminal  laws,  whilst  the 
H.  C.  deals  only  with  legal  directions. 

■'  Comp.  J.  Jeremias,  Die  Kult ustafel  von  Sippar,  Leipzig,  1889  (Dissert.  with 
appendix),  and  article  "  Ritual  "  in  Encycl.  Bibl. ;  H.  Zimmern,  K.A.  T.,  yd  ed., 
594  ff.  ;  P.  Haupt,  "Babylonian  Elements  in  the  Levitic  Ritual,  S.-A.,"  from 
Journal  of  Biblical  Literat ure,  1900. 


SACRIFICIAL   RITUAL 


113 


Biblica!. 

nirnhä,  "gift."' 

korhän  (P.C.),  sac- 
rificial  gift  (pro- 
fane, alms;  comp. 
Mark  vii.  11). 


and  cluty). 


1.  Names 

Bahy!o7iia>i-Assy7ian. 

Corresponds  to  sh-iirVinu.   which  possibly 
does  not  mean  "altar,"  but  "donation."  ^ 
Identical  with  kirhannu-^  without  further 
evidence    it  cannot  be   conipared   ^\■ith 
l-itj-ubu,    but,    on    the    contrary,    with 
kurrubu,  to  present  (ofFering). 
taniid       (offering   :  Corresponds  e.ssentially  to  sattiüchu,  pro- 
bound  as  to  tinie  pei'ly  speaking,  "  the  constant "  ov ginü, 

"  the  privilege.""     Both  the  expressions 
denote    the    yearly,    monthly,    seldoni 
daily  Temple  gifts. 
There  is   not    a   corresponding   nindahü. 
The    Assvrian    nindahu,    "  offering    of 
bread,""  -  must    be    kept  apart  etvmo- 
logically. 
z'ihi  (seldom,  for  example,  V.  R.  3,  112). 
nakti,  properly  speaking,  to  outpour,  to 
present  a  hbation,  but  also  used  of  the 
sacrifice,  especially  of  the  sheep.'^ 
rriri''^  na)!?^  to  offer   |  epesku,    to    offer,    properly    speaking,    to 
to  Yahveh  (pro-  perform  ;    for    example,    epesh     nilcia 

perly    speaking,  nadän  z/be-ia. 

"  to  perforni ""). 
tabäh. 

"133,  expiate,  origin- 
allv,  to  cleanse. 


nidabä. 


nii.  "offering"-' 
au'nakkft,     oflFering 
cup,     from    rfp2, 
"  to  be  emptied."" 


shelem. 


tabäliK,  "  to  slay.'' 

kuppm'u  "  to  cover,"  then  "  vvipe  off,'' 
"refine,"  "cleanse"  (substantive  tak- 
phiu,  technical  term  for  the  ritual  of 
expiation).^ 

—  shalfunii,  shalammti  in  the  contracts. 


^  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  ßid  ed.,  595,  surely  "oblation,"  from  sharäktt,    "to  cover 
with  "  (the  censer). 

-  The  ideogram  signifies  "  hread  of  Ishtar"  ;  see  Jer.  vii.  18. 

■•  The   Assyrian    bSl  nikS,    "  sacrificer,"    corresponds  word  for  word  with  the 
nai-^v^  upon  the  sacrificial  tablet  of  Marseilles  ;   Corp.  Inscr.  Sem.,  i.  165. 

^  Comp.  I  Sam.  vii.  6,  where  the  hbation  plays  an  important  part  ;  2  Sam.  xxiii. 
13-17  ;  I  Chron.  xi.  15-19.     The  Priestly  Code  does  not  recognise  the  iibation. 

=  Comp.  Zimmern,  Beiträge,  92  ;  Hehn,  P.A.,  vi.  373. 
VOL.    II.  8 


114     ISRAELITE   AND   BABYLONIAN   LEGISLATION 


2.  Sacrißcial  Material 

In  Israel  cattle  and  the  produce  of  agricultuie  were  otfered, 
but  in  Babylonia  also  other  vegetables,^  karatm,  ktcitinmi,  wine, 
nuist ;  sh'ikarn,  fennented  wine  (comp.  Numb.  xxviii.  7)  prepared 
from    corn,    and    dates,    or   honey    and    dates ;    cUsini,   honey ; 

heineiK^  butter ;  shamnu,  oil ; 
suluppu,  dates  ;  tabfn,  salt  { origin- 
ally  incense). 

It  is  to  be  noted  upon  the 
twelve  loaves  of  showbread  tliat 
also,  according  to  the  Babylonian 
texts  of  ritual,-  twelve  loaves,  or 
3x12  loaves,  were  laid  before  the 
deity,  of  which  it  is  said  that  they 
must  be  made  with  fine  flour,  and 
that  they  must  be  alril  rmitki, 
i.e.  sweet. 

As  sacrißce  for  hlood  lambs 
{iiilxfi),  sheep  (shiiii,  Hebrew  nw), 
goats  (buliädü  andothers),bullocks 
{gumahhu)  and  gazelles  (sabitu)  are  named  amongst  the  Baby- 
lonians.     Of  birds  :  doves,  hens,  and  others. 

Preferably  yearlings  were  sacrificed  :  apil,  or  marat  shatti,  as 
in  the  Priestly  Code,  HD©-]!.  Also  two-,  three-,  and  four-year- 
old  animals.  The  sacrißcial  beast  must  be  healthy,  and  with- 
out  physical  blemish  :  rabü,  dushshü,  marü.  Above  all,  it  must 
be  "  clean '" :  elhi,  ebbte  (Biblical  ü^pn).  In  the  hariispicmm 
the  (not  obligatory)  choice  of  defective  animals  was  not  to 
iniluence  the  oracle,^  just  as  in  the  free-will  offering  of  the 
Priestly  Code  (Lev.  xxii.  23)  defective  animals  were  allowed. 
As  a  rule  the  sacrifice  was  a  male  ;  but  there  are  examples  of 


Fig.  134. 


—Altar  out  of  the  palace 
of  Sar?on  II. 


'  Seidom  in  Israel:  wine,  Numb.  xv.  5,  xxviii.  7,  i  Sam.  i.  24;  oil,  Gen. 
XXXV.  14,  Mic.  vi.  7.  The  sacrifice  of  incense  (see  Ezek.  viii.  i  ff. )  is  only 
recognised  in  the  P.  Isaiah  invcighs  against  it,  and  in  Isa.  Ixv.  3  names  Babykmia 
as  its  home  ;  its  proper  home,  nuiwithstanding,  is  South  Arabia. 

■•^  Comp.  Zimmern,  Beiträge,  94  ff. 

•'  Comp.  Knudtzon,  Gchete  an  den  Sonnengott ;  in  additioii,  Zimmern,  Beiträge  ; 
index,  see  about  shaldmti. 


SACRIFICIAL   RITUAL 


115 


feminine  animals,  for  example,  on  the  inscription  of  Sennacherib 
at  Bavian,  33.  In  purification  feminine  animals  were  certainlv 
ahvays  employed.^ 

The  sacrifice  was  boiled  (comp.  1  Sani.  ii.  14)  or  burnt."- 

3.  Place ^  Tbue,  and  Freparat'ion  of  the  Sacrifice 
The  sacrifice  was  voluntary,  chiefly  on  pubHc  occasions  and 
at  festivals.  Tiglath-Pileser  VII.,  16,  speaks  of  a  yearly  sacri- 
fice, like  1  Sam.  xx.  6.  The  contracts  often  speak  of  daily 
sacrifices.  Upon  the  sacrifice  on  the  seventh  day  (an  example 
p.  200,  i.),  compare  Exod.  xxix.  38  ff.  In  Babylon,  at  least 
in  relatively  late  times,  the    preparation   of  the   sacrifice   was 


E^_  £3 


Int/Mte 


Fig.  135.  — Assyrian  sacrificial  scene  on  an  obelisk,  from  Nimrud-Kalach  (palace 
of  Assurbanipal).     To  the  left  the  court  of  justice  in  the  gateway. 

exclusively  made  by    the    priest.     E\en    the   king    needed    his 
mediation.     In  Assyi'ia  the  king  was  high  priest  and  sacrificer.^ 

Upon  the  priest's  portion  compare  J.  Jeremias,  Kultiistnfel  von 
Sippen;  pj).  19  f.  Particulars  as  to  the  spotlessness  of  the  priest 
(comp.  Lev.  xxi.  21)  are  given  in  the  Enmeduranki  text,  Zimmern, 
Beifr.,  116  ff.,  translated  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  534. 


4.  Idea  of  the  Sacrifice 

As  the  earth  brings  her  tribute  to  her  overlord  (comp.  IV.  R. 
20,  Obv.  22  ff.),  so  the  offerer  brought  his  tribute.  The  divinity 
is  represented  as  tasting  the  meat-offerings ;  comp.  Deluge  text, 

^  Haupt,  Nimr.  Ep.,  xhv.  60.  The  introductions  to  sacrificial  hymns  often 
speak  of  a  feminine  animal  (A?  pitu).  Compare  with  this  Numb.  xv.  27,  where, 
as  sin-offerirg  for  onc  person,  a  year-old  she-goat  is  demanded. 

-  The  parts  of  the  sacrifice  are  nanied  in  List  II.  R.  44,  1-5  C/>  i4~iS  gh  ; 
comp.  J.  Jeremias,  Die  Kultiistafel  von  Sippar. 

"  Comp.  p.  200,  i.,  and  the  contracts,  which  often  namc  the  sacrifice  by  the 
kingland  the  crown  prince. 


116     ISR AELITE    AND   BABYLONIAN    LEGISLATION 

Hne  151  ;^  in  Gen.  viii.  21  ;  Deut,  xxxiii.  10''  there  is  still  an 
echo  of  this  presentment,  see  p.  267,  i. 

Near  the  sacrificer  in  the  pictures  Stands  the  praycr-nmker. 
The  sacrifice  is  to  incline  the  divinitv  in  favour  of  the  giver ; 


Y\(',.  136. — Assurbanipal  makes  an  oftering  over  slain  liuns. 
Relief  from  palace  in  Konyunjik, 


Fig.  137. — Drink-olierin;^  with  mnsic  over  slain  lions. 
Relief  from  palace  of  Ashurnazirpal. 

comp.  1  Sam.  xiii.  12.  "The  gods  rejoice  over  the  repasf'  it  is 
Said  in  Esarhaddon's  inciuiries  of  the  Sun-god.  Conipare  with 
this  Deut.  xii.  7. 

Hut  the  thouglit  of  atonenient  is  not  absent.     The  technical 
tcnn  is  kupptini,  "  to  expiate"  (Hebrew  ng3  ;  see  p.  113).     In 

'  "Tliey   smelled    ihe   sweet    fragrancc,  and    swarmed    like    flies    round    the 
sacrifices. " 


SACRIFICIAL    RITUAL 


117 


the  New-Babvlonian  contractu  alap  taptirih  spoken  of,  "  bullock 
of  unloosening  (?)";  comp.  Lev.  iv.  3.  Of  Dtt?N  and  n^Ean  there 
is  no  trace  in  Babylonian.  The  conception  of  a  reüg'ious  com- 
nutnity  such  as  appears  in  the  Israelite,  and  also  in  the  ancient 
Arabian  sacrifice,  is  unknown  to  the  Babvlonian.^ 


5.  Pnrifications 

The   thought  at   the  root  of  purification  is,  that  the  thing 
that  is  pure  lias  sympathetic   power   to   comniunicate   its   own 


Fui.  13S. — Sacrificial  scene,  after  Layard,  Moniinien's  of  A'uicveh. 

quaiity.  Together  with  water,  there  is  cleansing  power  in  wine, 
honey,  butter,  Salt,  cedar  wood  (IV.  R.  16,  32;  V.  R.  51,  15; 
comp.  Lev.  xiv.  4),  cypress  wood,  palm  wood,  and  all  kinds  of 
frankincense.  To  the  lliarr  rrDp  of  Jer.  vi.  20  lycmn  tähfi  exactly 
corresponds.  The  "  scapegoat  "  was  sent  into  the  wilderness  ; 
Lev.  xvi.  8,  comp.  Enoch  x.  4.-  In  Babylonian  the  desert  is 
called  ashrii  ellu,  "  clean  place  "' ;  IV.  R.  8,  436,  and  elsewhere. 
This  niay  be  understood  euphemistically  of  the  desert  as  the 
place  of  demons.  In  Jos.,  Ant.^  iii.,  10.  3,  the  goat  to  be  burned 
is  sent  et?  KaOapcoraTov.''     Contact   with   the   dead  and  sexual 

^   Upon  the  question  of  human  sacrifice>,  sce  pp    34S,  i.,  and  441. 

-  See  Lev.  xvi.  8. 

^  The  wilderness  was  also  by  the  Jevvs  thought  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
demons.  In  Tobit  viii.  3  Asmodaeus  is  sent  into  the  wilderness  ("lo  Egypt," 
see  p.  195,  i.).  Passages  of  authentic  proof  from  the  Talmud  in  Nork,  Jiadd. 
QueHeti,    Ixxxiv.    and    19.       In    Matt.  iv.    the   desert   is   the   dwelling-place   of 


118     ISR AELITE   AND   BABYLONIAN   LEGISLATION 

impuritv  was  cleansed  amongst  the  Babylonians  as  in  Israel, 
IV.  R.  26,  No.  5.1 

In  food  also  there  was  clean  and  unclean.  V.  R.  48  f.  tbi-bids 
fish  upon  the  9th  Ijjai-,  pork  upon  SOth  Ab,  pork  and  veal  upon 
27th  Tishri,  dates  upon  lOth  Marheshvan,  intercourse  with  women 
upon  25th  Ijjar,  29th  Kislev,  and  6th  Tebet. 

In  the  Babylonian  ritual  texts  IV.  R.  4),  26 ;  59,  No.  2,  Rev. 
xiv.,  uncleanness  niay  be  taken  away  by  a  bird;  just  as  in  Lev. 
xiv.  4.  The  regulations  specified  in  Lev.  xiv.  in  regard  to 
cleansing  of  lepers,  which  ave  to  be  esteemed  throughout  as  not 
religious,  but  civil,  agree  with  the  Babylonian  ritual :  cedar- 
wood,  wool,  and  hyssop,  likewise  the  sprinkling  seven  tinies,  and 
the  crowning  point  of  the  cevemonies  in  the  off'ering  of  the 
lamb. 

MiN.EAN  Elements  in  the  Mosaic  Ritual 

We  recognised  in  the  prince  of  Midian,  Jethro  (Reguel),'  a 
"  Minaean  from  Muzn."^  According  to  Exod.  xviii.  19  ff.  he  took  a 
decided  part  in  the  fundamental  laws  established  by  Moses."' 
If  we  may  assume  that  tlieii-  cult  at  Sinai  agrees  in  any  way  with 
that  of  the  Israelites,  theu  it  is  of  importance  that  the  Minsean  and 
Saba^an  inscriptions  show  a  number  of  technical  terms  whicli  recur 
in  the  Mosaic  cult :  — 

(fl)  From  the  Minaean  inscriptions,  the  Midian  of  the  Bible  (el 
Öla),  we  have  : 

Lani'u  and  lawiäi,  priest  and  priestess.  Note  in  regard  to  this 
that  in  Exod.  iv.  14  Aaron,  who  reeeives  the  hereditary  priesthood, 

ihe  devil.  Compare  also  Luke  iv.  i  f.  :  "  driven  into  the  desert,  tempted  by  the 
devil."  Mark  i.  13  :  "and  was  with  the  wild  beasts,'"  by  which  pevhaps  is  to  be 
underslood  demoniacal  monsters. 

1    =Ciin.  Texts,  xvii.  41  ;  and  see  ibid.,  p.  3S. 

-  In  the  Jewish  legends,  Beer,  Leben  Mosis,  p.  56,  he  has  seven  names. 
According  tu  the  inscriptions,  Minsean  priests  repeatedly  bear  two  names  ;  see 
Nielsen,  Die  altarabische  Mondreligioii.  The  Sabseans,  who  must  be  held  as 
heirs  of  the  Minsean  civilisation,  use  related  names  upon  their  inscriptions  ;  see 
pp.  286,  i.  f.,  Qim,  '^Nini  and  others. 

'  The  northern  Minceans  are  thus  called  by  the  South  Arabian  texts:  Ma'an 
Muzran. 

■*  See  M.J'.A.G.,  1901,  29.  It  was  already  to  be  concluded  from  this  that  it 
could  not  be  Ireating  of  a  "  Bedouin."  Moses  would  certainly  not  have  allowed 
himself  to  be  instrucled  bysuch  an  one.  According  to  the  Jewish  fable  (Beer,  loc. 
(it.,  p.  60),  Jethro  had  formerly  been  an  expert  in  hieroglyphic  wriling  and  a 
counsellor  at  the  Egyptian  court.  He  was  banished  from  the  court  like  Sinuhe 
(p.  325,  i.)  and  like  Moses  himself. 


MIN.EAN  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  MOSAIC  RITUAL    119 

is  designated  as  Levite.  The  Ancient-Israel  cult  also  certainly 
recognised  women  Levites,  who  were  abolished  later  in  consequence 
of  improprieties  :  Sennacherib,  aniongst  special  gifts  of  tribute  paid 
to  him  froni  Jerusalem,  names  musicians  and  women  niusicians  ;  see 
p.  223.     These  must  surely  be  musicians  of  the  Temple. 

MasUwi  altar  =  place  of  the  Shalem  sacrifice  ? 

Dedication  of  bashshala  (that  is  to  say,  boiling  the  meat  offering  ?)  ; 
see  under  Sabsean  inabshal.  The  years  are  i-eckoned  hei*e,  as 
occasionally  -with  the  Sabaeans,  according  to  Kabiren  (kabir),  i.e. 
high  priests.^ 

(6)  From  the  Sabeean  inscriptions  in  Harim,  which  belonged  to 
the  former  Minaean  Jowf : 

Hai.  156.  comp.  151.  the  Sun-goddess  Dät-Himaj,  e.e.  "  Mistress 
of  the  sacred  enclosure  "  (Hoinmel,  G.G.G.,  l-t^). 

Bronze  fablet  Gl.  1054  (Vienna  Hofmuseum):  "  because  upon 
the  third  da^-  of  the  feast,  and  in  addition  whilst  she  was  unclean,  a 
man  had  approached  her"  ;  comp.  Exod  xix.  15  (Hommel;,  G.G.G., 
144.  Avho  in  addition  mentioiis  the  foUowing  parallels)  : 

Tannahaja,  "he  brought  thank-oifering  "  (comp.  Hebrew  nn^p  ?)  ; 
mahshal,  sanctiiary  (that  is  to  say^  place,  where  the  raeat-offering 
was  boiled }  comp.  Ezek.  xlvi.  23). 

Akdär,  " Courts  of  sacrifice"  (comp.  Hebrew  haser,  fore-court), 
makanat  (sacrificial  vessels)  (fig.  178,  p.  232,  Hai.  485,  Gl.  1076), 
the  mekonuh  of  1  Kings  vii.  27  iF. ;  Jer.  lii.  17  ff.  ;  comp,  km,  Exod. 
XXX.  18,  amongst  others,  the  placing  of  the  laver  in  the  fore-court. 

AhUy,  probably  the  sweet-bread ;   Hebrew,  hallot. 

^  Compare  with  this,  Grimme,  Lif.  Rundschau,  1904,  347. 


CHAFTER    XX 

"the  taberxacle  of  covenaxt""  and  "  ark  of 
the  covknant  "  ^ 

(Exod.  xxv.-xxxi.) 

The  editor  of  the  Pentateuch  joins  on  to  the  eveiits  üccurring 
at  Sinai  an  aecount  of  the  sanctuary  founded  at  Sinai.- 

^  \Ve  deal  rather  more  fully  with  this  ihan  uiight  appear  lo  correspond  to  the 
designof  thebook,  because  the  matter  isa  central  point  of  interest.  In  Opposition  to 
the  book  by  M.  Dibelius,  Die  Ladejahvc's,  1906  (and  the  works  quoted  there),  and 
the  deductionsagreeing  with  it,  by  Gunkel.  Zlschi-.f.  Missioiisw.  und  Ke/ig/oiiyn'., 
1906,  is  Budde's  treatise  in  TkeoL  Slud.  u.  A'rii.,  1906,  489  ff.,  in  which  he 
rejects,  in  his  clear  and  distinguished  style,  departures  from  the  prevailing  dogmas. 
Dibelius  shows  a  sound  sense  of  ihe  ancient  Clements.  But  the  school  to  which 
his  melhod  belongs  uses  provisionally  only  details  of  the  uniform  Ancient- 
Oriental  conception.  A  review  of  the  whole  material  would  upset  the  method. 
The  critical  supposition  of  Dibelius  differs,  in  so  far  as  he  revcrts  to  the  historical 
existence  of  the  ark  and  the  Tabernacle  in  Israel,  from  the  prevailing  judgment 
of  Vatke  in  the  year  1835  (later  withdrawn  by  its  author).  thal  "  we  are  justified 
in  ex[)laining  the  accounts  of  the  Mosaic  Tabernacle  and  ark  as  fiction,  coniposed 
later,  following  the  pattern  of  the  Temple,  the  type  of  which  they  wished  to 
derive  from  Moses,  and  from  Jehovah  Himself  {Religion  des  A.T.,  p.  333). 
But  they  are  supposed  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  Mosaic  cult.  They  were 
invented  or  adopted  in  Canaan.  This  at  least  breaks  away  from  the  view  accord- 
ingto  which  the  ark  originally  served  a  fctish-worshipping  cult  (p.  130,  i.).  The 
hypothesis  of  its  being  a  fiction  of  the  Priestly  Code — against  which,  for  example, 
Kittel  also  pronounced  in  his  Geschichte  der  Hebriier,  i.  216 — must  have  been 
already  confounded  by  the  circumstance  that  the  second  Temple,  which  served 
for  the  new  Community,  had  no  ark  in  the  sanctuary,  as  also,  according  to 
Jer.  iii.  16,  there  was  no  compensation  provided  for  its  absence  in  this  sanctuary. 

-  See  upon  the  following,  Klostermann's  critical  examinations,  Pcnlatciich,  ii. 
1906,  67  ff.  Ib.,  p.  67  (comp.  i.  15  ff.,  1883,  Gesch.  Isr.,  76) :  "  The  Pentateuch, 
as  the  authoritativc  book  of  a  Community,  has  undergone  various  redaclion«,  in 
the  course  cf  which  obscure  passages  have  been  rewritlen  in  an  intelligible  manner, 
and  troublfsome  discrepancies  have  been  rcconciled."  Upon  the  whole  subject 
compare  now  my  article  on  "Urim  und  Tuinniim  "  in  Ililprechl's  Aiuiivcrsaiy 
VoliDiic,  223  ff. 

1-JO 


THE   TENT    OF   MEETING  121 

The  "  God  of  their  fathers,"  to  whose  place  of  revelation  on 
the  niountain  of  God  the  Hebrews  had  journeyed,  was  next  to 
be  present  with  the  people  in  a  tent  sanctiiary,  and  to  niake 
His  will  known,  after  He  had  shown  Himself  as  the  God  of 
Deliverance  by  the  rescue  from  Egypt,  and  had  established  His 
divine  rule  over  the  people  by  codified  laws  upon  tables  of 
stone. 

Moses  learned  the  ]aw  of  God  in  visionary  events,  upon  the 
holy  niountain  of  God,  and  saw  in  spirit  the  pattern  for  the 
sanctuary  of  the  future  sacramental  presence  of  God.  The 
revelation  links  itself  on  to  a  fundamental  idea  of  the  Oriental 
religious  conception,  according  to  which  evevy  sanctuary  is  a  copy 
of  the  heavenly  sanctuary.  We  spoke  of  this  at  pp.  57,  i.  ff'.^ 
Moses  was  to  build  the  sanctuary  after  the  heavenly  model. 
Exod.  XXV.  9  :  "  exactly  according  to  the  pattern  n'iDin  of  the 
dwelling,  and  all  its  furniture,  that  I  shew  thee  (have  shown), 
so  shall  ye  makeit"":  comp.  xxv.  40,  referring  to  ark,  table, 
lights,  and  altar  of  incense :  -  "  see  that  thou  niake  them  after 
their  pattern  which  hath  been  shewed  thee."" 

The  divine  address,  Exod.  xxv,  1  ff.,  which  gives  the  Instruc- 
tions for  carrying  out  the  building,  presupposes  a  relation  of 
the  corresponding  vision  on  the  mountain,  which  has  been 
dropped  out  of  the  text  before  us.  The  carrying  out  of  the 
building  is  entrusted  to  expert  workmen,  to  whom  Yahveh 
'"had  given  insight,"  Exod.  xxxi.  1  ff.,  xxxvi.  1.  No  word  is  to 
be  overlooked  as  to  the  possibUHiij  of  constructive  building  in 
Midian.^ 

The  sanctuary  was  called  ''ohcJ  vw'-cd,  "tent  of  meeting'" 
(Sept.  a-Ki]i')]  Tov  /u(xpTupLov\  and  in  general  mrr"'  iDÜJD,'* 
"  dwelling-place  of  Yahveh."  These  are  two  names  for  the 
same  thing.     The  particular  name  ''ohcl  mo^'ed  is  established  by 

1  Comp.  ß.N.  T.,  62  ff.  ;  further,  Acts  vii.  44. 

-  Exod.  xxv.  38  is,  as  Klostennann  has  proved,  the  remnant  of  the  diiections 
for  building  the  altar  of  incense.  The  sacrificial  altar  also  corresponds  to  a 
heavenly  pattern,  previously  shown  upon  the  mountain  ;  Exod.  xxvii.  8,  comjj. 
xxvi.  30. 

"  Gunkel  {/oc:  cit.)  also  holds,  in  Opposition  to  Dibeliu.s,  the  coniposition  in  the 
Mosaic  period. 

■*  Coinpare  also  Joshua  xviii.  i,  xxii.  19.  Both  designations  parallel,  for  exaniple, 
Numb.  iii.  3S. 


122  T ABERN ACLE  AND  ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 

Moses,  according  to  Exod.  xxxiii.  7,  because  the  oracle  of 
Yahveh  would  be  comniunicated  therein  :  "  Everyone  whicli 
sought  to  inquire  of  Yahveh,  went  out  to  the  ^ohel  mo''ed 
withoLit  the  camp." 

''Ohel  mo''ed  nieans  "  teilt  of"  meeting.""  The  Israelites  uiay, 
in  connection  with  this,  have  thought  of  the  assembly  of  the 
people,  as    the    great    festivals   were    called   D"'~li'D.^      Bat    the 


Fig.  139. — Seal  cylinder,  vessel  of  the  gods  showing  the  throne 
of  God  (Sun-god  travelling  over  the  sea  ?). 

historical  origin  of  the  name  (likewise  of  har  mo^ed,  Isa.  xiv.  14  : 
Zion  as  earthly  copy  of  the  heaveiily  inountain)  lies  in  the 
Oriental  conception  of  the  heavenly  or  earthly  sanctuary  in 
which  the  gods  assenible  for  the  purpose  of  the  ordering  of 
Fate :  ''ohel  mo''ed  is,  properly  speaking,  "tent  of  meeting" 
(for  the  purpose  of  ordering  Fate). 

In  the  ''ohel  mo^ed  stood,  according  to  P,  in   the  first  place 
(Exod.  XXX.  26),  the  "ark,"  T^^T^^  nivn  p"iN  (Sept.  ;}  KißcoTo^-  tov 


'  Exod.  xl.  34  explains  the  name  :  because  God  may  be  found  here  according 
to  agreenienl. 


THE   ARK  123 

jULapTvplov  \),  made  of  acacia  woocl,  "  the  only  wood  for  building 
that  there  was  upoii  Sinai,"  -  which,  besides,  was  held  to  be 
"wood  of  life.""^  It  contained  the  table  of  the  covenant 
(rT'inrr  nrnS",  also  called  simply  rr^-ll,  "  covenant  "V  Deut.  x. 
i  fF.^  We  do  not  doubt  that  these  assertions  of  the  Pentateuch 
correspond  to  historical  truth  from  Sinai  onwards.  The 
Statutes  of  God,  written  upon  the  tables  of  stone,  correspond  to 
the  Tables  of  Fate  which  were  written  at  the  Assembly  of  the 
Gods  in  the  Babylonian  dwelling  of  Fate.*'  In  the  procession  of 
Marduk,  to  whom  the  Tables  of  Fate  (tup-shimäti)  \\ere  lent, 
a  sort  of  pix  {paralx  shimat'i  \  comp,  the  casket,  fig.  2  ff.) 
was  carried  out  from  Dul-azagga  in  Esagila  to  the  sacriücial  or 
marriage  house,  in  a  sacred  boat; '  Hommel  conjectures  that 
in  this  parak^  shimäti  the  tup-shimäti  (Tables  of  Fate  as 
heavenly  laws)  were  preserved,  like  the  tables  of  the  law  in  the 
ark.  It  seems  to  us  as  though  our  text  betrays  an  ancient 
terminology,  according  to  which  the  ark  with  the  tables  was 
also  called  in  the  Mosaic  cult  pantkku  {paroliet).  Is  it  possible 
that  in  Numb.  xxxiv.  3  parol'et  ha-''eduth  corresponds    directly 

1  2  Sam.  vii.  2,  vi.  7,  according  to  which  the  ark  was  from  the  beginning  in 
the  tent,  are  not  valid  for  argument,  because  they  have  been  revised  in  accordance 
with  Deuteronomy. 

-  Upon  the  hypothesis  of  fiction  this  passes  natiually  as  a  refinement  of  the 
poem,  Uke  the  circumstance  that  "  bronze  "  is  current  in  P  instead  of  iron.  That 
is  a  purely  modern  idea. 

^  Sept.  ^v\ov  aa-n-n-TOv,  and  Exod.  xxvi.  32,  etc.,  cnvXoi  aa-r]Trroi,  pillars  of 
acacia  wood.  According  to  Kircher,  CEdi/^.  .Egypt.,  iii.  c.  2,  it  was  sacred  to  the 
Sun-god  in  Egypt. 

->  Comp.  1  Kings  viii.  9,  and  see  Klostermann's  commentary  upon  this  passage. 

5  The  tables  are  also  called  "  tables  of  the  '-editth,''-  Exod.  xxxii.  15  (  =  tables  of 
the  benth;  Deut.  ix.  15).  'Ednfh  are  the  written  established  witnesses  of  the 
divine  will ;  in  Joshua  iv.  16  the  ark  as  the  ehest  built  for  the  tables  of  stone  is 
called  "  ark  of  the  'eduth."  'Eduth  would  convey  to  the  people  the  same  idea  as 
»lo'ed ;  see  Klostermann,  loc.  cit.,  69. 

«  Comp.  p.  50,  i.  For  the  present  we  conditionally  withdraw  the  conjecture  in 
connection  with  this,  stated  in  A.  T.A.O.,  ist  ed.,  pp.  262  f.,  upon  the  arrangement 
of  the  Decalogue  according  to  the  planets  (joining  with  Winckler's  remarks,  Ant. 
Sehr.,  ii.  65),  tili  a  later  clearer  confirmation. 

7  According  to  a  communication  of  Hommel's  from  an  unprinted  essay  designed 
for  the  Expository  Times,  in  which  the  relationship  of  the  ark  of  the  tables  of 
the  law  with  that  of  the  tup-shiinati,  probably  containing  the  parak  shimäti,  will 
be  pointed  out. 

*  Syna.xi,  perakka,  "shrine  for  the  idol." 


124     TABERNACLE    AND    ARK  OF  THE    COVENANT 

to  the  Babylonian  parrik  shhnati  ?  Then  Exod.  xxvii.  21  should 
be  jiidged  the  sanie  way.  As  in  that  case  to  the  altar  of 
incense,^  so  in  this  the  candle.sticks  would  be  placed  near  to 
the  ark  in  tlie  sanctuarv.-  The  ark,  however,  was  not  only 
the  receptacle  for  the  tables  of  stone,  but  it  was  held  symbolic 
of  the  throne  of  Yahveh.  This  is  shown  quite  clearly  by 
Jer.  iii.  16  f.  :  "In  those  days  the  ark  with  the  law  of  Yahveh 
shall  be  no  more  remembered  ;  mach  more  at  that  time  they 
shall  call  Jerusalem  the  throne  of  Yahveh.""  And  this  corre- 
sponds  also  to  what  we  niust  expect  from  the  Oriental  conception 
in  the  midst  of  which  the  cult  arose.  It  was  therefore  a  relio:ious 
vessel  which  represented  a  heavenly  microcosnios  (see  pp.  49,  i.  ff.). 
Klosterniann  has  convinced  us  that  in  tlie  symbolism  of  the  cult, 
by  the  ark  they  were  not,  in  the  first  place,  treating  of  the  throne 
itself,  but  of  the  footstool  of  the  throne.^  In  Exod.  xxiv.  10 
Moses  and  his  companions  behold  the  God  of  Israel  upon  his 
throne  upon  the  niountain  of  God :  "  at  his  feet  was  a  pave- 
nient  of  sapphire  stone,  and  as  it  were  the  very  heaven  for 
clearness."  If  the  record  of  the  vision  were  complete,  we  should 
have  a  description  of  the  divine  throne  upon  the  niountain, 
corresponding  to  the  throne  in  the  ''ohel  mo'-ed,  The  kapporet 
of  the  ark  corresponds  to  the  footstool  described.  A  correspond- 
ing religious  vessel  is  the  cover  {raq/a'-)  of  the  inerkaha  which 
comes  out  of  the  north  as  the  chariot-throne  of  God  in  Ezekiel ; 
comp.  Ezek.  i.  22  :  "  Over  the  head  of  the  creature  was  the 
likeness  of  a  raq/a\  gleaming  like  crystal.''  It  is,  besides,  to 
be  carefully  noted  that  in  Chronicles  the  cherubim  which  cover 

'  Which  belongs  to  the  Fragments  of  the  ancient  cult  of  the  'ohel  ino'cd;  see 
p.    121. 

-  In  Exod.  xxvi.  34  the  Sept.  has  kapporet,  the  Hebrew  text  paroket.  In 
Exod.  XXX.  6  the  Sept.  says  :  "  before  l^nt  paroket,  which  covcrs  the  ark."  The 
Hebrew  text  adds  to  it  as  duplicate  :  "before  the  kapporel,  which  Covers  the 
ark."  Also  here  paroket  ("curtain,"  or  the  "dividing")  possibly  denoted  in 
the  original  text  the  sacred  shrine.  There  exists  an  etymological,  but  possibly 
also  religious,  connection  with  parakkn. 

^  Klostermann,  loe.  eit,,  p.  73.  Comp.  Ps.  cxxxii.  7  :  "  Let  us  go  into  his 
dwelling-place,  and  fall  before  his  footstool  ;  arise,  Yahveh,  into  thy  resting-place, 
thuu  and  thy  mighty  ark. "  Ezek.  xliii.  7  :  "  Hast  thou  seen  the  place  of  my  throne, 
and  the  place  of  the  soles  of  my  feet?"  1  Chron.  xxviii.  2,  the  ark  appears  as  the 
"  footstool"  of  Yahveh  (ver.  18  calls  the  cherubim,  which  cover  the  adyton  in  the 
Temple,  itterkaba,  as  the  cherubim  chariot  throne  in  Ezek.  i.  is  called). 


THE    ARK 


125 


the  ark  in  the  Temple  are  called  merhiha  (1  Cliron.  xxviii.  18) 

The  sonrce  of  Chronicles  recog- 

nised  the  connection  between  the 

throne  of  God,  tlie  ark,  and  the 

divine  chariot-throne  in  Ezekiel.^ 

But  even  if  the  cover  of  the  ark 

was  held  to  be  the  step  of  the 

throne,    yet   that   is    only  pcus 

pm  tofo.     The  decoration  of  the 

ark  is  that  of  the  divine  throne. 

And    in    Exod.    xxv.    22    and 

Numb.    vü.  89  the  voice  of  God 

comes  froni  the  •'  cover  "  het^-een 

the  Cherubim.     In  Exod.  xxv.  20 

figures  of  cherubini   are    placed 

as  throne-bearers  upon  the  cover 

of  the  ark  :  "  They  shall  spread 

out  their  wings  on  high  [over  the 

cover],  covering    the   roof,  uith 

their  faces  turned  one  to  another 


Fig.  140. — Sacred  shrine  from  Eg3-pt, 
Vessel  of  God  (Ohnefalsch- 
Richter,  Kypros,  Bibel,  und 
Hoiiter,   ex  xxviii.,   No.   X). 


one  toward  the  other  -  shall 


FlO.  141.  —Cherubim  in  the  zodiacal  sanctuary  of  Dendeia.      Ohnefalsch-Richter, 
loc.  cit.,  cxxxviii.,  No.  2.     (Comp.  p.  128,  n.  I.) 

^  The  interesting  passage  from  Shemot  Rabba,  quoted  p.  139,  n.  ',  proves  that 
the  Rabbis  recognised  the  connection  between  the  sacred  throne  of  God  on 
Smai,  the  earthly  copy  of  which,  however,  was  the  tent  sanctuary,  and  the 
inerkaba  with  the  four  beasts. 

-  We  have  omitted  "  towards  the  seat ''  in  the  first  part  of  the  sentence.  Thus 
the  unnatural  position  (bent  over  the  ark)  vanishes.  "Towards  the  seat" 
denotes,  to  cur  mind,  only  the  position  to  the  seat  from  the  side  ;  comp.  fig.  141. 


126     TABERNACLE    AND    ARK  OF  THE   COVENANT 

the  faces  of  the  cherubim  be  turned."  The  chevubim  are 
thoLight  of  as  throne-bearers,  as  are  the  merkaba  of  Ezekiel. 
Fossiblv  also  Klostermann  is  in  the  right  with  his  assumption 
that  the  conception  is  that  of  four  cherubim  (two  cherubim, 
each  with  a  double  face). 

^  The  ark  as  a  ehest,  and  the  kapporel  ^  as  throne,  or  footstool 
of  the  throne,  have  some  logical  connection  which  is  no  longer 
recognisable  in  the  symbols  of  the  Mosaic  cult.  Here  the  ark  is 
tlie  sacred  shrine  for  the  tables  of  the  law.  In  so  far  as  the  ark 
has  to  do  Avith  the  throne,  it  represented  the  ehest  in  the  Aneient- 
Oriental  myth  of  the  expectation  of  the  Deliverer  (or  ship,  ship  of 
Isis,  ark  of  the  Deluge),  in  which  the  future  Deliverer  is  hidden. 
After  the  water  (winter)  is  sailed  through  and  the  danger  is  over- 
come  (see  the  examples,  pp.  92  ff.),  he  enters  upon  the  rulership. 
The  Deliverer  rises  out  of  the  ehest,  and  the  ehest  becomes  the 
throne  upon  which  the  Bringer  of  the  Spring  of  the  Universe  sits. 
We  have  already  referred  to  Rev.  xi.  19,  xii.  1  ff",  at  p.  9^-  The 
seer  beholds  the  ark  (Kt/iwrds,  as  in  the  Sept.  in  Exod.  xxvii.  21,  xxxix. 
35,  ete.)  in  the  sanetuary.  Then  he  has  a  vision  of  the  birth  of  the 
ehild  of  the  sun,  whieh  is  to  be  threatened  by  the  dragon  and 
hidden  in  the  heavenly  sanetuary.  Is  the  throne  upon  whicli  He 
sits,  Rev.  xii.  5,  the  ark  shown  in  the  heavenly  sanetuary  in  Rev.  xi. 
19.^  The  later  sources  woidd  seem  in  that  case  again  to  show 
the  conneetions  more  elearly  than  the  ancient  reeords.  But  the 
religious  fancy  of  the  old  Biblieal  chronieler  perhaps  reeognised 
the  conneetions.  The  ark  is  called  'aro7i,  like  the  ehest  in  Gen.  1. 
25,  in  whieh  the  body  of  Joseph  was  laid,  whose  figure  was  endowed 
with  the  motifs  of  the  Deliverer  myth  (Tammuz-Osiris) ;  see  j).  67. 
And  in  the  same  way,  surely,  the  body  of  Jacob,  whieh  was 
embalmed  for  forty  days,  and  mourned  for  seventy  days  (Gen.  1.  2), 
and  over  which  thev  held  a  seven-day-long  "  Egyptian  niourning  " 
upon  the  threshing-Hoor  of  Hadad  (Gen.  1.  10  f .  ;  see  p.  82), 
would  have  been  placed  on  the  hier  in  the  'aron.  'Arm  corre- 
sponds,  therefore,  to  the  ark  of  Tammuz-Osiris.  The  populär 
myth  embodies  the  expectation  of  a  Deliverer  in  Osiris  and  Tamnmz. 
In  this  also  lies  the  meaning  of  the  Osiris-Tammuz-Marduk  motifs 
which  we  found  in  the  stories.  We  found  most  elearly  the  motif 
of  the  persecuted  and  hidden  Deliverer  in  the  stories  of  the 
childhood  of  Moses.  Like  the  hidden  child  of  the  sun  of  Rev.  xii., 
he  appears  after  his  rescue  as  dragon-slayer  (deliverance  out  of 
Egypt ;  see  p.  195,  i.).      But  Moses  is  only  a  hero,  Avho  acts  by  the 

^  The  question  would  be  of  importance  in  regaid  to  the  relation  of  the  ark  to 
the  throne  as  to  vvhether  the  kapporet  was  held  lo  be  the  cover  of  the  ark  or  as 
an  Ornament  upon  the  already  closed  ark.  According  to  Exod.  xxv.  17  ff.  it  fornied 
a  separate  part,  the  addition  of  which  was  spccially  comnianded.  Exod.  xxvi.  34, 
xxxi.  7,  etc.,  it  is  also  mentioned  as  something  special. 


THE   ARK   AS   THE    OSIRIS-TAMMUZ    CHEST     127 

commission  of  God.  The  Deliverer  is  God  Himself.  That  He  is 
the  God  of  Deliverance  is  the  meaning  of  the  revelation  at  Horeb- 
Sinai.  Therefore  it  is  extremely  likely  that  the  symbohsm  of  the 
cult  at  Sinai  would  hnk  itself  to  the  vequisitions  of  tlie  myth  of  the 
DeHverer.  The  artists  gifted  by  God  with  divine  insight  (p.  121) 
would  have  thought  of  the  Osiris-Tamniuz  ehest  wheii  they  put  up 
the  ark,  the  sacred  shrine  for  the  tables  of  stone.  The  presupposi- 
tion  of  Olli-  view  is,  naturally,  that  Yahveh  Himself  bore  the  features 
of  the  heatheu  Osiris-Tammuz,  for  the  Israelites.  This  is  also  very 
comprehensible ;  for  in  the  myths  of  Tammuz-Osiris  a  religious 
truth  is  hidden  :  expectation  of  a  diviue  Deliverer.  The  people,  it 
is  true,  -would  see  grosser  lines  of  connection.     In  pure   Yahveh- 


FiG.  142. — Ship  of  the  sun,  in  the  temple  of  Wadi  Sebua  (Lepsius,  Den/onälei; 
iii.  iSl).  Carried  by  bearers,  for  example,  in  the  illustration  in  the  atlas  in 
Creuzer's  Symbolik. 


]"eligion  only  the  synibol  remained^,  which  shows  in  fine  outline  the 
})oetic  forms  of  the  m3'th. 

We  would^  quite  tentatively,  suggest  the  question  wliether^  in 
passages  like  Exod.  xxxiv.  23, ^  Mal.  iii.  1,  and  Ps.  cxiv.  7,  'Adon 
may  not  correspond  directly  to  the  Phcenician  divine  name  Adonis 
( =  Tammuz).  There  is  to  be  no  lamentation  for  Jehoiakim  (Jer. 
xxii.  18):  hoy  'adon  (Adonis  gone  down^  whose  resurrection  and 
victory  was  awaited  ;  see  pp.  91,  i.  ff-)-  ^"  ^^^^  contrary.  Josiah  was 
so  lamented,  for  whom,  as  Deliverer,  they  mourned  and  longed  ;  see 
p.  lOOj  i.  It  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  divine  Deliverer,  who 
revealed  Himself  in  the  sanctuary,  was  called  upon  by  the  same 
name. 

Amongst  the  sculpture  from  the  Ancient-Oriental  monuments  that 
may  be  referred  to  on  the  question  of  the  meaning  of  the  ark,  the 
vessels  reproduced  in  figs.  37,  139,  l-l'O  come  into  special  considera- 

'  .Saniavit.  has  it  'aion  Vahveh. 


128  TABERNACLE  AND  ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 

tion.  Fig.  139  appears  to  us  the  most  important.^  In  this  one 
there  is  a  throne  borne  by  figures  of  beasts  on  a  ship  lipon  which  the 
divinity  sits."-  Fig.  143  shows  a  Babylonian  portable  throne  in  a 
procession  of  gods.  Fig.  l-il  (cherubim,  troni  Dendera)  ilhistrates  for 
US  the  Position  of  the  wings  of  the  cherubim  described  in  Exod. 
xxxvii.  9  (comp.  pp.  1'25  f.).  Fig.  142  shows  an  Egyptian  sacred 
mystery  casket,  standing  upon  the  ship.  -]< 

The  building  of  the  sanctuary  indicates  to  a  certain  extent 
the  ceremonial  re-establishment  on  earth  of  the  dwelling-place 
of  God,  which  was  erected  when  creation  was  conipleted  and 
closed  when  man  was  driven  out  of  Paradise.  The  appearance 
at  Horeb  showed  Moses  the  throne  of  God  hedged  in  with 
uhorns  and  flanies  ;  see  p.  99.  Klosterniann  ^  has  shown  how 
the  redactor  of  the  story,  the  aiithor  of  the  Pentateuch,  has 
intended  to  refer  to  the  counections.  The  time  of  building 
does  not  last  seven  years,  like  the  teniple  of  Solomon,  nor 
seven  days,  like  the  creation,  but  seven  months.'^  The  seven 
times  repeated  formula :  "as  Yahveh  commanded  Moses,"  ^ 
corresponds  to  the  seven  acts  of  creation.  The  prepara- 
tion  of  the  inaterials  (Exod.  xxxix.  32)  is  accompanied  by 
words  which  expressly  recall  Gen.  ii.  1  f.  And  as  God  was 
pleased  at  the  end  of  His  work  (Gen.  i.  31)  and  blesses  it 
(Gen.  xxviii.  2,  3),  so  Moses  (Exod.  xxxix.  43)  bles.ses  the 
master  workmen. 

Gen.  ii.  1  f.  :    So  the  heaven  and      Exod.    xxxix.     32  :     Thus     was 


the  earth  were  finished,  with 
their  whole  host.  And  on 
the  seventh  day  God  finished 
his     Avork      which     he     had 


finished  all  the  work  for  the 
'ohel  ?no^ed,  and  the  Israelites 
did  according  to  all  that  Yah- 
veh had    commanded  Moses 


niade.  j  — so  did  they. 

^  Just  this  cherubim  throne,  placed  upon  a  ship  which  we  connected  (.4.  T.A.  0. , 
ist  ed.)  with  Ezek.  i.  {^nierkaba),  has  been  overlooked  by  Dibelius,  from  whose  book 
the  connection  of  figs.  140-142,  and  the  hint  in  fig.  37,  were  taken. 

-  The  Sun-god  ?     Comp.  fig.  37. 

•''  Loc.  eil.,  p.  93. 

■*  See  Klostermann,  i.  162  ff.,  ii.  93. 

''  Exod.  xl.  19,  21,  23,  25,  27,  29,  32.  This  seven  times  repeated  form  nuist 
have  corresponded  to  a  sevenfold  divine  commandment  (comp.  Exod.  xxv.  i,  xxx. 
II,  17,  22,  xxxi.  I,  12,  xl.  i).  In  like  manner  seven  parts  in  the  priest's 
garment.  Seven  parts  in  the  relation  of  the  consecration  of  the  priest,  and  the 
first  sacrificial  acts  of  the  priest ;  see  Klostermann,  loc.  cit.,  ii.  95. 


THE   SANCTUARY   AS   DIVINE   THRONE      129 

Gen.   i.    31,  i.    28,    ii.    3:     And  Exod.  xxxix.  43  :   But  now  when 

God  saw  that  everything  he  Moses    saw    that    they    had 

had    made    was    very    good  done    the    whole     work     as 

....   Then     God    blessed  Yahveh    had    commanded^ 

them^    and   said    iinto    them  |         even  so  had  they  done  it — 


.  And  God  blessed  the 
seventh  dav. 


then  Moses  blessed  them. 


Upon  the  relation  of  the  ürim  and  Thummim  to  the  Tree  of  Life 
and  the  Tree  of  Knowledge,  see  p,  137. 

The  ark  with  the  cover  of  cherubim  is  therefore  the  place 
in  the  ''ohel  mo'ed  where  they  thought  Yahveh  was  present. 
When  in  1  Sam.  iv.  3  fF,  the  ark  of  the  God  of  Sabaoth,  who 
is  enthroned  upon  cherubim,  is  brought  into  their  camp,  that 
was  held  to  be  the  coming  of  God  into  the  camp,^  and  the 
story  at  the  end  of  the  chapter  (Ichabod)  shows  that  with  the 
loss  of  the  ark,  the  Iribod,  the  gloiy  of  Yahveh  is  taken  awaj 
froni  Israel.'-  The  sacramental  sanctuary  is  also  called  U)~rpn, 
because  it  is  a  place  sliut  ofF  from  the  rest  of  the  tent.  "  Before 
the  Wlp "'  is  the  sarae  as  "  before  the  ''eduth  ark,"  or  "  before 
the  ''eduth.''''  ^'  The  voice  of  God  came  from  the  throne  of 
cherubim,  when  God  revealed  Himself  and  spoke  with  Moses. 
The  way  of  approaching  the  oracle  is  described  in  Exod.  xxxiii. 
7-10,  xxxiv.  33-35.  The  passages  are  Fragments  closely  con- 
nected, which  have  been  scattered.  They  give  the  following 
picture :  Yahveh  revealed  Himself  outside  the  camp.  Who- 
soever  would  inquire  of  Yahveh  went  outside  the  tents  of  the 
camp,  before  the  tent  of  revelation,  and  waited  the  answer. 
Approach  to  the  oracle  was  through  Moses.  When  he  went 
out  to  the  Performance  of  religious  ceremonies,  all  the  people 
rose  up  within  the  camp  and  watched  him  with  reverence.  As 
soon  as  Moses  entered  the  tent,  the  cloud  which,  according  to 
Exod.  xl.  34,  since  the  completion  of  the  building  had  covered 

'  I  Sam.  iv.  7  (not  a  speech  of  the  Philistines),  comp.  v.  3,  where  by  a  gloss 
the  populär  expression  "cur  God"  (  =  ark;  compare  the  verb  "he  shall  go 
forth,"  "  he  shall  save  ")  has  been  obliterated  ;  see  Klostermann  in  his  commentary 
upon  the  passage. 

"  I  Sam.  iv.  21.     See  Dibelius,  ioc   cit.,  pp.  17  f. 

3  Klostermann,  ii.  72  :  "That  this,  however,  is  not  the  tables  of  stone,  but  the 
ark  in  its  act.ial  form,  may  be  inferred  from  E.Kod.  xxv.  22  and  Numb.  vii.  89, 
where  the  voice  comes  from  between  the  cherubim." 

VOL.    II,  9 


130  T ABERN ACLE  AND  ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 

the  tent  as  a  sign  that  Yahveh  was  to  be  found  there,  descended 
to  the  entrance  of  the  tent.  Within  God  conversed  in  person 
with  Moses  "as  a  man  speaketh  with  his  friend."  Then  when 
Moses  returned  the  Israelites  saw  "  that  the  skin  of  Moses' 
face  shone."  So  he  covered  his  face  with  a  veil  ^  every  time  he 
came  out  of  the  tent. 

The  sacred  tent  formed  the  templum  of  the  Israelite  camp. 
The  camp  itself  was  oriented  according  to  the  four  points  of 
direction.  The  ark,  together  with  its  dwelling-place,  protected 
the  camp,  which,  in  its  turn,  formed  the  protection  of  the  ark. 
As  the  sanctuary  of  the  Kaaba  in  Mecca  gives  us  an  illustration 
of  the  Israelite  sanctuary,  so  the  discipline  of  a  Mohammedan 
camp  is  still  built  upon  the  same  fundamental  laws.  Also  the 
parallel  of  the  camp  discipline  of  the  Roman  army,  described 
by  Polybius,  which  was  probably  of  Etruscan  and  therefore  of 
Oriental  origin,  may  be  rightly  brought  into  comparison  ;  -  here 
the  temple  of  the  augur,  by  whose  specifications  the  camp  was 
measured  out  according  to  the  four  points  of  direction,  corre- 
sponds  to  the  'ohel  mo^ed.  The  ark  was  made  portable.^ 
The  directions  in  Exod.  xxv.  13  ff.  are  substantiated  by  the 
mention  of  the  bearers  in  2  Sam.  vi.  13,  xv.  24.  But  the 
Instructions  for  the  carrying  of  the  ark  relate  only  to  the 
transport  from  the  adyton  to  the  chariot,  and  from  the  chariot 
to  the  adyton,  and,  in  that  case,  to  the  use  of  the  ark  in 
processions,  for  example,  as  in  going  round  the  walls  of  Jericho 
(Josh.  vi.,  see  pp.  157  f.).*  In  the  migration  from  Station  to 
Station  a  chariot  drawn  by  oxen  was  used  as  means  of  transport. 
The  draught  animals  and  oxen  served  the  same  purpose  as  the 

'  The  connection  in  which  the  Fragment  (Exod.  xxxiv.  33-35)  now  Stands  has 
led  to  the  erroneous  view  that  Moses  ascended  Moiint  Sinai  every  time,  and  that 
the  veiling  and  unveiling  were  connected  with  these  ascents  of  the  mountain. 
See  p.  62  upon  the  matter. 

2  Klostermann,  ii.  144  ;  Nissen,  Das  templum. 

"  Budde's  objection  [Stttd.  11.  Krit.,  1906,  492)  to  the  undignified  position 
given  to  the  enthroned  Vahveh,  if  he  sat  sideways  or  even  astride  when  the  ark 
was  carried,  will  be  answered  by  a  glance  at  fig.  143  (conipare  also  fig.  7,  p.  i6, 
second  god  from  the  left).     The  throne  when  carried  would  be  like  these. 

■*  2  Chron.  xxxv.  3  also  probably  refers  to  carrying  in  procession  :  "  Put  the  holy 
ark  in  the  temple.  .  .  .  You  need  no  more  carry  it  upon  your  Shoulders."  It 
can  scarcely  be  referring  to  a  custom  of  war  ;  see  Dibelius,  loc,  cit.,  44. 


THE    ARK    AS   A   DEFENCE 


131 


wheels  of  the  merkaba  in  Ezekiel.  The  cherubim  symbolise  the 
throne-bearers,  but  they  couM  not  move.i  In  Numb.  vii.  3  it  is 
explicitly  recorded  that  the  chief  of  the  tribes  had  to  supply 
oxen  and  carts  for  the  service  of  the  "ohel  jno'ed.  That  the 
transport  upon  ox-eart  corresponded  to  sacred  custom  is  shown 
by  the  treatment  of  the  ark  by  the  Phihstines  (1  Sam.  vi.  7  ff.). 
They  would  certainly,  in  their  own  interests,  have  followed  with 
exactitude  the  ceremonial  due  to  the  ark.  In  Numb.  x.  33  it 
is  assumed  that  the  ark  went  three  days'  journey  in  advance  in 
the  migration.     Three  days'  journey  is  probably  a  symbohcal 


'      I  Hu         I  1/  s  I  '' 


Fig.  143.— Assyrian  procession  of  idols.     (From  Layard, 

Monuineirts  of  Nineveh^  i.  65.) 

nuniber.  But  the  assumption  that  they  trusted  for  guidance 
to  the  instinct  of  the  animals,  for  instance,  foi-  finding  water 
is  very  enhghtening.- 

In  Numb.  x.  35  ff.  the  liturgical  formula  is  preserved  which 
was  to  be  pronounced  upon  leaving  for  a  new  Station  and  upon 
arrival  at  a  new  Station  : '' 

'  Noeldeke  thinks  that  they  thought  of  the  cherubim  flying  through  the  air  with 
the  ark.     This  is  only  possible  if  the  whole  thing  is  taken  as  fiction. 

■'  Thiis  Klostermann;  it  is  also  taken  thus  by  Holzinger  in  his  Exodus. 
Parallel  examples  ave  given  in  Curtiss,  Urseniilische  jRe/igioyi.  The  Weli  are 
erected  where  the  sheep  destined  for  sacrifice  lies  down.  Stucken,  loc.  cit. 
18  f.,  reminds  of  the  guiding  cow  of  Cadmus,  the  guiding  cameis  in  the  ancient 
Arabian  myths  (Wellhausen,  Skizze7t,  iii.  147),  and  the  guiding  stag  in  German 
fables. 

^  The  technical  terms  are  i'Dj  and  nu.  Both  are  motif  words.  The  meaning 
of  >'d:,  as  we  have  concluded  (pp.  19  and  105)  from  the  expression  nii'=3,  is 
decisive  in  the  Interpretation  (stations,  cosmic  meaning  :  stations  of  the  lunar  or 
of  the  solar  cycle). 


132  TABERNACLE  AND  ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 

When  the  ark  set  out  (to  seek  a  new  Station)  Moses  said  : 

Rise  up,  Yahveh,  that  tlune  enemies  niay  scatter  theraselves, 
and  tliey  that  hate  thee  may  flee  before  thee. 

And  when  they  reached  the  camping  ground  he  said  : 
Enclose  ^  again,  Yahveh, 
Surround  the  ten  thousand  times  thousands  of  Israel. 

The  idea  would  be  :  in  the  niigration  the  hiddeii  presence 
of  Yahveh  in  the  ark  is  the  protecting  guide  of  the 
march  ;  in  the  camp  it  forms  the  surrounding  protection,  as  in 
Zech.  ii.  5  f.,  the  Lord  •' surrounds  Jerusalem  like  unto  a 
holy  wall." 

In  the  wars  of  Yahveh  the  ark  was,  in  like  manner,  used  as 
a  Symbol  of  war.  That  this  was  not  the  rule  in  ancient  times 
is  shown  by  1  Sam.  iv.  7,  where  bringing  the  ark  was  looked 
upon  as  something  extraordinary.  In  2  Sam  xi.  11  this  ini- 
portance  in  war  is  presupposed  in  the  wars  of  David.- 

The  conduct  of  David  also  shows  that  the  statements  about 
the  tent  and  the  ark  in  P  correspond  to  historical  facts  of  the 
past.  When  he  completed  the  sanctification  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  erection  of  a  sanctuary,  he  would,  no  doubt,  have  acted 
carefully  according  to  the  old  traditions.  How  otherwise  could 
the  building  of  the  sanctuary  have  made  the  desired  Impression 
upon  the  people  .^  Already  in  SamuePs  time  the  inclination 
seems  to  have  existed  to  put  a  solid  building  in  place  of  the 
tent.  The  sanctuary  at  Shiloh  seems  to  have  been  really  no  longer 
a  simple  tent.  David  reverted  to  the  old  tradition,  and  gave  up 
building  a  house.  But  it  should  be  carefully  noted  that  in  the 
directions  given  by  David  to  Solomon  for  the  building  of  the 
temple  (1  Chron.  xxviii.  11  flP.),  it  speaks  of  a  pattern  {tahntt, 
See  p.  121)  which  was  given  to  the  future  builder.  The 
tradition  is  noteworthy,  and  may  very  possibly  belong  to  the 
good     traditionary    material     of     Chronicles.       David     would 

'  The  Hebrew  text  has  n2ir,  variant  nac  ;  see  Kittel,  Bio/.  Hebr.,  upon  the 
passage.  The  emendation  n33t'  follows  a  supposition  of  Klostermann's.  The 
Sept.  has  eTrio-rps^/e,  and  might  therefore  cover  the  reading  naa^-.  In  no  case 
can  (as  in  the  translation  of  Dibelius,  loc.  cit.,  p.  ii)  t\z-\-z-  be  linked  with  the 
foUowing  personal  accusative  as  goal  of  the  local  movement  ("  Seat  thyself  upon,'' 
"  Return  home  to,"  etc.). 

-  Klostermann's  commentary,  ad  loc,  inserts  the  words  "the  ark''  both  in 
X.  7  and  12. 


YAHVEH   SABAOTH  13S 

certainly  have  faithfully  collected  all  the  traditions  about  the 
ancient  sanctuary.- 

Now  in  the  temple  of  Solomon,  corresponding  to  the 
character  of  the  solid  building,  the  kibla  of  religious  venera- 
tion,  the  .sanctuarium,  which  hid  the  presence  of  Yahveh,  was 
founded.  The  whole  adyton  was  now  the  place  of  the  en- 
throned  majesty  of  Yahveh.^  Therefore  figures  of  cherubim 
were  placed  which  overshadowed  with  their  wings  the  whole 
adyton.  The  idea  of  the  throne  of  Yahveh,  which  the 
kapporet  with  the  cherubim  represented  symbolically,  is  to  u 
certain  extent  repeated  in  the  great  cherubim. 

In  the  course  of  the  story  the  divine  names  Yahveh  Sabaoth 
and  Yahveh,  whose  throne  is  upon  cherubim,  appear  in  dosest 
connection  with  the  ark.  The  sanctuary  at  Shiloh  belonged 
to  Yahveh  Sabaoth,  who  sitteth  upon  the  cherubim,  see 
1  Sam.  iv.  4  ;  2  Sam.  vi.  J2  f.  is  especially  characteristic :  it  is 
Said  of  the  ark  of  God,  which  was  brought  upon  a  new  cart  drawn 
by  oxen  from  the  mountain  sanctuary  of  Abinadab  to  Zion  : 
"the  ark,  over  which  is  named  a  name,  the  name  Yahveh 
Sabaoth,  that  sitteth  upon  the  cherubim.''  Also  Isa.  xxxvii. 
14  ff.  belongs  here.  Hezekiah  spreads  out  a  letter  in  the 
Temple  "  before  Yahveh  Sabaoth,  the  God  of  Israel,  that 
sitteth  upon  the  cherubim '' ;  that  certainly  means,  before  the 
ark.^  Both  names  have  the  same  cosmic  meaning  :  Yahveh  is 
Lord  of  the  starry  universe.*     The  cherubim  are  representative 

^  The  prophet  Gad,  who  in  2  Sam.  xxiv.  i8  ft",  gives  instructions  for  building 
the  altar,  possibly  played  a  special  röle  in  connection  with  it ;  see  Klostermann, 
Gesch.  Isr.,  170  f.,  who  in  i  Chron.  xxviii.  19  reads  :  "  The  whole  is  a  writing  of 
Gad  (c  to  be  blotted  out  as  in  Sept.)  of  the  seer  (n.inn  ns,  as  in  i  Chron.  xxix.  30), 
to  instruct  him  (read  as  in  Sept.  and  Targ.,  ^yc-rh)  upon  the  construction  of  the 
pattern." 

-  It  is  improbable  that  the  ark  was  carried  with  them  any  more  into  battle  as  a 
war  sanctuary.  The  passage  in  2  Chron.  xxxv.  3  is  not  conclusive.  The  religious 
depth  of  feeling  in  the  prophetic  period  could  well  renounce  this  material  guarantee 
of  Yahveh's  presence. 

"  See  Dibelius,  loc.  cit.,  p,  47.  In  the  variant  in  2  Kings,  xix.  Sabaoth  is  absent. 
^  P.  iSi,  i.  The  translations  of  the  Hexapla  have  for  Yahveh  Sabaoth,  together 
with  Kvpios  2oßaü)9,  the  names  Kvpios  rSiv  Swä/xecnv,  Kvpios  tSiv  (rrpaTiSiv.  Upon 
the  cosmic  importance  of  Bwap-^Ls  and  cnpaTiä.  in  the  New  Testament,  see  B.N.  T., 
§5  f.  The  Stars  are  the  hosts  of  God,  see  Judges  v.  20.  The  transference  10  hosts 
of  Israel  was  very  simple.     Isa.  xxiv.  21  ff.  is  specially  characteristic  of  the  relation 


134  TABERNACLE  AND  ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 

of  the  four  corners  of  the  world,  likewise  of  the  throne-bearers 
of  God,^  ornamentally  indicated  in  the  ark  of  Yahveh,  and 
afterwards  in  the  adyton  of  the  teniple  of  Solonion. 

The  absence  of  the  nanie  in  the  Pentateuch  is  remarkable. 
If  the  ark  was  a  historic  fact  in  the  Mosaic  period,  the  names 
also  must  have  been  ancient.-  The  practical  motive  of  their 
absence  from  the  present  text,  which  represents  the  Pentateuch 
separated  from  the  Book  of  Joshua  as  the  revised  book  of  a 
Community,  was  pointed  out  by  Klostermann,  and  is  referred  to 
p.  120,  n.  2.  For  a  later  age  the  names  had  a  heathen  sound. 
They  substituted  for  them,  as  it  seems  :  the  ark  of  Yahveh, 
the  Lord  of  the  whole  earth  {adon  kol  ha-arez ;  Sept.  KÜpio^ 
7ra(T>7?  '^'Z?  yw)-  Thus  in  Joshua  iii.  11,  13.  The  name  adon 
Vahveh,  Exod.  xxiii.  17,  xxxiv.  23  (Sept.  eiwTriov  Kvplov  tou 
deov  'Icrpcu'iX),  is  perhaps  a  remnant  of  this  renaming.''  That 
they  were  in  the  spirit  of  the  later  age,  is  to  be  seen  in 
Zech.  iv.  14,  where  the  two  anointed  ones  who  stand  beside 
the  candlestick  are  called  servants  of  the  adon  kol  ha-arez, 
whereas  in  this  cosmic  picture  a  name  like  Yahveh  Sabaoth 
was  to  be  expected.^ 

of  the  lordship  of  Yahveh  to  the  slarry  worlds  ;  see  upon  this  passage  and  pieviously, 
p.  195,  i.  Compare  further  our  deductions  upon  the  populär  conception  of  Yahveh 
with  2  Kings  xxi.  5,  xxiii.  5. 

^  The  four  beasts  of  the  Apocalypse. 

-'  Dibelius  also  contends  for  the  at  least  relative  antiquity  uf  the  name,  /oc.  cü,, 
p.  21  ;  Budde,  in  Biicher  Saiiiuclis,  also  allows  the  name  Yahveh  Sabaoth  to  be 
valid  as  original. 

^  Thus  Klostermann,  Gesch.  Isr.,  p.  76. 

*  Klostermann,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  76  f.,  sees,  according  to  this  analogy,  in  the 
modern  and  abstract  sounding  name  "Yahveh,  God  of  the  spirit  of  all  flesh," 
Nunib.  xvi.  22,  xxvii.  16,  a  paraphrase  of  the  name  "  Yahveh,  who  sitteth  upon 
the  Cherubim.'"  This  appears  to  us  very  illumiiiating,  since  it  is  dealing  with  the 
difficult  question  of  animals  in  connection  with  the  glory  of  God.  It  should  be 
noted  that  Ezekiel  calls  the  beasts  of  the  me'kaba  (chap.  i.)  only  hayyot,  "  living 
creatures,"  and  only  later  (chap.  x.),  after  he  has  grasped  the  meaning,  does  he 
call  them  cherubim. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

FUKTHEK    GLOSSES    UPON    THE    PENTATEUCH 

Exoü.  xx\-.  23  ff. :  Twelve  loaves  of  show-bread.  There  is  a 
.similar  usage  in  the  Babylonian  ritual,  see  p.  114  ;  compare  also 
the  "  sweet-bread  "  (?),  ahlaj  in  the  Minaean  inscriptions  (p.  118). 
The  "  bread  of  the  countenance  "  ("  presence-bread  "),  refers  to 
beholding  God  in  the  mysteries  of  the  cult.  Exod.  xxiv.  ]  1  : 
the  elders,  who  ascended  to  the  throne  of  God  upon  the  moun- 
tain,  ''  beheld  God,  whilst  they  did  eat  and  drink."  The  eating 
of  bread  in  the  ''ohel  mo^ed  would  have  the  same  sacramental 
effect.  Compare  the  rehgious  figure  of  speech  :  "  I  shall  be 
satisfied  when  I  awake  after  thy  hkeness."  Like  all  religious 
Symbols  the  twelve  loaves  of  show-bread  also  have  a  cosmic 
meaning.     Jos.,  Ant.,  iii.  T,  7,  says: 

The  twelve  loaves  correspond  to  the  twelve  months  of  the  year 
(or  to  the  twelve  eonstellations  in  the  zodiac) ;  the  candlesticks  of 
seventy  parts  mean  the  signs  through  which  the  planets  go,  and  its 
seven  lamps  mean  the  planets  themselves. 

Exod.  XXV.  31  :  The  seven-branched  candlestick.  The  table 
of  show-bread  and  the  candlestick  of  the  temple  of  Herod  are 
represented  upon  the  Arch  of  Titus  in  Rome.  Philo  ^  also 
agrees  upon  the  reference  to  the  seven  planets  (Jos.,  Ant.,  see 
above).  As  the  seven  planets  represent  the  complete  revelation 
of  the  divine  will,  in  Oriental  mysticism,  so  the  seven-branched 
candlestick  concealed  the  presence  of  God.  An  interesting 
variant  to  this  religious  symbol  is  the  "  seven  eyes  of  God, 
which  run  to  and  fro  through  the  whole  earth  "  ;  see  Zech.  iii.  10. 

Exod.  xxviii.  6  ff.,  31  ff.  :  The  high  priesfs  garment.     Here 

1  Upon  the  parallels  in  Rev.,  see  ß.N.  T.,  24  ff. 
135 


136     FURTHER  GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 

also  ancient  elements  are  concealed  behind  the  decorative  pre- 
sentment  of  P.  The  garment  represents  cosmic  time  and  space.^ 
The  high  priest  therefore,  as  Substitute  for  God,  wears  it.  This 
cosmic  garment  has  been  spoken  of  p.  177,  i.^  The  Jewish  in- 
terpreters  know  the  meaning.  They  say  the  number  of  the 
pomegranates  was  12,  or  72,  or  365.     Those  are  the  numbers 


Fii;.  144. — Relief  from  the  Arch  of  Titus,  Rome. 

of  the  cycle.     Besides  this,  the  pomegranates  are  to  be  thought 
of  as  bells.^ 

Exod.  xxviii.  17  ff.,  comp,  xxxix.  8  flF.  :  Urim  and  Thummim. 
The  two  articles  that  Aaron  wore  upon  his  breast  in  the  oracle 
pocket.  It  is  clearly  to  be  seen  from  the  old  poem  in  Deut, 
xxxiii.  8  that  in  an  ancient  tradition  the  Urim  and  Thummim 
were  ascribed  to  Moses  also.  He  wrested  them  from  God  in 
combat,"*  and  we  may  assume  that  in  the  fragmentarily  preserved 

'  The  prophet's  mantle  is  the  same  ;  see  p.  190.  Contrariwise  the  heaven  is 
the  garment  of  God  ;  Ps.  civ,  2. 

'  Josephus,  iii.  7,  7,  no  longer  rightly  understood  the  meaning. 

^  Upon  the  symbolism  of  numbers,  comp.  Jacob,  Der  Peniateiich,  Leipzig,  1905. 

*  Upon  the  meaning  of  this  combat,  which  bears  the  same  signification  as 
Jacob's  combat,  see  pp.  58  f. 


URIM   AND   THUMMIM 


137 


text  of  Exod.  xxxiii.  8  ff.,  which  recounted  the  oracular  practices 
of  Moses,  the  Urim  and  Thummim  were  spoken  of.  They  were 
used  in  inquiry  of  the  oracle,  But  the  oracle  revealed  fate,  and 
the  bearer  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  to  a  certain  extent  ruled 
over  fate.  Thus  the  Urim  and  Thummim  worn  upon  the  breast 
form  an  analogy  to  the  Babylonian  tables  of  fate  {tup-shbnäti^ 
See  p.  50),  which  Hkewise  were  worn  upon  the  breast.  What  do 
Urim  and  Thummim  mean  ?  Clearly  it  is  an  antithesis.  We 
know  the  stress  laid  upon  the  antithesis  of  the  two  halves  of 


Fig.  145. — Egyptian  sacied  bull.      Museum  at  Gizeh. 

the  cycle :  hght  and  darkness,  death  and  Hfe.  U^rim  and 
Thummim  are  hfe  and  death,  yea  and  nay,  hght  and  darkness.^ 
In  the  sanctuary  of  the  ^ohel  mo^ed  was  thus  therefore  concealed 
in  the  symbol  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  the  same  meaning  as 
in  the  trees  of  life  and  of  knowledge  (hfe  and  death,  Selene  and 
Hehos)  in  Paradise.- 

It  is  comprehensible  that  in  the  prophetic  period  the  Urim 
and  Thummim  might  appear  comparatively  heathen.  For  this 
reason  also  after  the  Exile  they  were  to  be  used  no  more,  though, 
according  to  Neh.  vii.  65,  the  people  might  feel  the  want  of  them. 

^  We  would  have  given  the  same  explanation  earlier,  without  being  able  to 
explain  Thummim  philologically  (Urim  is  clearly  "  light  ").  The  Tarn  motif  pre- 
sented  by  Winckler,  /^.,  iii.  420  f.,  gives  a  confirmation  ;  see  above,  p.  52. 

"  See  p.  24,  i.  Upon  Urim  and  Turnmim  and  Ephod,  see  A.  Jeremias  in 
Hilprecht's  A7iniversa7y   Vohtme,   pp.   22j  ff. 


138     FURTHER   GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 

To  the  twelve  precious  stones  upon  the  oracle  pocket,  coinpaie 
the  six  precious  stones  upon  the  breast  of  the  Babylonian  king. 
IV.  R.  18,  No.  3,  and  see  p.  213,  i.  The  art  of  seal-engraving 
(Exod.  xxviii.  11)  was  spread  throughout  the  whole  Western 
Asiatic  world. 

Exod.  xxix.  38  ff.  :  see  p.  115. 


Fig.  146. — Sacred  cow  of  the  Egyptians.     Tomb  of  Sethi  I. 

Exod.  XXX.  13 :  Adults  had  to  pay  tribute,  in  so  far  as  they 
'•  had  entered  into  the  number  of  the  initiated."  ^ 

Exod.  xxxii.  4  :  The  golden  calf.  This  affair  remains  obscure. 
Is  it  connected  with  the  Egyptian  bull.''-  But  probably  only 
a  live  bull  would  have   been    worshipped.     There    certainly  is 

'  Winckler,  O.L.Z.,  igoi,  2S9;  not  " passet h  over  unto  them  thatarenumbered." 
It  is  treating  of  a  ceremonial  act,  corresponding  to  circumcision  in  the  twelfth  or 
thirteenth  year  amongst  the  Arabians,  and  to  the  putting  on  of  the  toga  virilis 
amongst  the  Romans.  Upon  the  mysteries,  comp,  above,  pp.  83,  i.  f.,  and 
B.N,T.,  106  f. 

-  Comp.  figs.  145  and  146.  The  second  picture  shows  that  the  ciilt  is  of  astral 
mythological  origin  ;  the  first  picture  shows  the  horns  as  the  crescent  of  the  mooa 
particularly  clearly.     Fig.  154  is  also  instructive.     Comp,  further,  p.  70. 


THE   VEIL   OF   MOSES  139 

evidence  of  sculptured  representations  of  the  sacred  cow,  which 
represents  Hathor — for  example,  in  the  recently  discovered 
sanctuary  of  Osiiis-Hathor ;  see  p.  118,  i.,  n.  3. 

If  the  South  Arabian  bulls'  heads  of  the  Vienna  Museum 
(comp.  Nielsen,  I.e.,  p.  112)  correspond  to  ancient  Minaean  patterns, 
then  Exod.  xxxii.  4  may  show  an  imitation  of  an  Arabian  cult. 
But  in  any  case  it  deals  with  a  cosmic  astral  cult,  in  the  sense 
of  Arnos  V.  26  (see  p.  303);  comp.  Acts  vii.  42  f  The  bull 
uould  represent  the  Delivering  God,  who  brings  the  spring 
(the  Babylonians  of  that  age  called  him  Marduk)>  Previously 
the  pictorial  representation  was  by  a  dragon.- 

^  Exod.  xxxiv.  So  and  35  :  Moses  covered  hisface,  see  pp.  1 2 1 ,  i.  and 
62,  n.  3,  With  the  "  horned  Moses  "  of  the  Vulgate  compare  further 
the  play  of  words  in  v.  35:  llj;  pp ''2.  The  dhiVl-himär,  "veiled 
man,"  of  the  Islamic  legends  is  besides  made  equivalent  to  the 
dhü-  l-Karain,  "horned  man."  ^  In  the  legends  of  Alexander  which 
present  him  as  the  DeHverer,  Alexander  the  Great  says  :  "  I  know 
that  thou  hast  made  the  horns  to  grow  upon  my  head,  that  I  may 
crush  the  rieh  of  the  earth."  ^  The  horns  in  the  representation  of 
Naramsin,  fig.  88,  p.  317,  i.,  have  the  same  meaning,  and  upon  the 
seal-cylinder,  fig.  69,  p.  220,  i.,  and  upon  the  head  of  Hadad  on  the 
Stele  of  Zenjirli  (fi-om  Luschan,  Ausgrabungen  in  Sendschirli,  Table 
vi.,  original  in  the  Berlin  Museum).  It  is  the  badge  of  divine 
poAver.  Whether  the  horns  are  meant  for  a  definite  divine  pheno- 
menon,  hmar  horns  or  horns  of  Hadad,  must  in  each  case  be 
inquired  into.  In  the  populär  presentment  of  Moses  with  the 
horns,  it  is  most  obvious  to  think  of  Hadad-Tammuz :  on  the  one 
band,  because  the  presentment  of  Moses  bears  features  of  Hadad- 
Tammuz  (see  p.  93);  and  on  the  other  band,  because  Yahveh, 
whose  Substitute  Moses  is,  appears  in  the  populär  religion  endowed 
with  features  of  the  storm-god  (see  p.  12.'i,  i.,  n.  2).  ^ 

Exod.    XXXV.    25   f :  Spinning   as    woman's   work.     Fig.    91, 

1  Midrash  Shemoth  Rabba,  par.  iü.  at  3.  8,  says:  "God  says  he  will  come 
wilh  his  four  horses  {merkaba)  to  Sinai,  the  Israelites  will  loosen  one  of  the 
hayyot  (iherefore  the  cherubim  which  the  bull  represents)  and  anger  him :  this 
is  the  golden  calf."  The  man  who  invented  this  knew  the  meaning.  The  passage 
is  also  interesting  from  the  link  it  establishes  between  the  throne  of  Yahveh  upon 
Sinai,  fragmentarily  described  in  Exod.  xxiv.  10,  and  the  merkaba  of  Ezekiel,  as 
we  have  already  noted  at  p.  27,  i. 

"  "  Engraven,"  is  erroneous,  socin  in  Kautzsch  :  "  manufactured  it,"  as  Luther 
has  it,  is  correct. 

■■■  Comp.  B.  Beer,  ' '  Welche  Aufschlüsse  geben  die  jüdischen  Quellen  über  den 
'Zweihörnigen'  des  Koran,"  Z.D.M.C,  1855,  791  ff. 

^  See  Kampers,  Hisi.  Jahrb.  der  Görresgesellsch. ,  xix.  434  ff. 


140     FURTHER   GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 

p.  819,  i.,  shows  an  ancient  Babylonian  Spinner.  The  picture 
was  found  in  Susa,  is  of  Babylonian  origin,  and  belongs  to  the 
age  of  Gudea,  about  3000  b.c.  The  Tables  of  Ritual  speak  of 
witches  with  the  spindle. 

Lev.  ii.  13  :  Salt  at  the  meal  offering.  Salt  was  sacred  to 
the  ancients.  Homer  calls  it  Oeiov  äXa ;  Plato,  OeocpiXi'; ; 
Tacitus  bears  witness  of  it  aniongst  the  Germanic  people ; 
amongst  the  Romans,  reverence  for  the  penates  required  that 
the  salt-cellar  should  never  fail  to  be  upon  the  table.  Mark  ix. 
49  f. :  "  Every  sacrifice  shall  be  salted  with  salt.''  In  the  burnt 
ofFerings  in  Ezek.  xliii.  24  ^  there  may  be  sanitary  grounds  for  it.- 

Lev.  iv.  3  ;  see  p.  117. 

Lev.  V.  16 :  A  fifth  part,  i.e.  20  per  cent.,  therefore,  was  to 
be  paid  as  restitution  for  breach  of  contract.  It  was  the  same 
in  Babylonia.^ 

Lev.  xii.  8 :  Offering  for  purification :  the  rieh,  a  sheep ; 
the  poor,  two  pigeons ;  comp  Luke  ii.  24.  In  the  Tables  of 
Ritual  the  rubu,  noble  (fiill  citizen),  nuist  burn  a  pigeon  to 
ashes  (.'') ;  the  tmi-shlenii,  hondman,  must  burn  the  heart  {?)  oii 
a  sheep.^ 

Lev.  xiv.  4  ;  see  p.  118. 

Lev.  xvi.  8,  xvi.  26:  Azazel  (comp.  p.  117),  according  tc^ 
Enoch  ix.  6  and  others,  stands  for  leader  of  the  fallen  angels. 
The  name  cannot  at  present  be  explained  from  the  Babylonian. 
The  ratification  of  the  treaty  between  Assurnirari  and  Mati'ilu 
of  Arpad^  brings  to  mind  these  ceremonies,  where  for  the 
completion  of  the  oath  (not  as  a  sacrifice)  a  goat  was  brought 
from  the  flock,  and  the  limbs  represent  the  parts  of  the  bodies 
of  Mati'ilu  and  his  family.     In   Enoch  x.   4   Azazel  (who   is 

'  Likewise  amongst  the  Babylonians,  examplcs  of  it  are  fuund  in  ihe  tables  of 
fitual. 

-  YalkutSimeoni  says  (upon  Numb.  ii.  13,  remarl<ably)  that  they  took  bituminous 
Salt  to  accelerate  the  burning  and  to  modify  the  bad  smell.  According  to 
Menachoth  20a  not  only  the  gifts  offered,  but  also  the  firewood  at  the  sacrifice 
had  to  be  salted.     Comp,  further  Berachoth  5«  (Winckler,  Nene  Beiträge,  p.  39). 

^  Authentic  proof  given  by  Kohler  and  Peiser,  Bab.  Verträge. 

■*  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  598  f.     Upon  rank,  see  pp.  31  and  153. 

"  Peiser  in  M.  J'.A.G.,  1S9S,  22S  ft".  ;  comp,  above,  p,  48. 


MOLECH 


141 


Fig.  147. — Assyrian  sealcylinder, 
Menant,  Glypi.  Orient.,  fig.  95, 
Human  sacrifice? 


identical  with  the  beast)  is  cast  into  a  pit  in  the  wilderness 
(6or  =  Underworld ;  see  pp.  26,  65).  The  goat  is,  like  Azazel, 
the  power  of  the  Underworld,  the  devil.^  He  is  driven  into  the 
wilderness,  i.e.  into  the  Underworld.     Comp.  Isa.  xiii.  21, 

Lev.  xviii.  18  ;  see  pp.  2,  37. 

Lev.  xviii.  21:  Molech  (Moloch):  see  p.  349,  i.,  n.  2.  In 
connection  with  the  question  of  the  existenee  of  Molech  in 
Babylonia,  it  is  customary  to  discuss  the  question  whether  the 
Assyrio-Babylonian  people  used  human  sacrifice.^  There  is  no 
distinct  trace  to  be  found  of  human 
sacrifice  amongst  the  Babylonians  or 
on  the  inscriptions.  Tiele's  reniark 
that  perhaps  on  the  inscriptions 
they  intentionally  concealed  such 
things,  cannot  be  proved  without 
further  material.  Zimmern  points 
out  the  following  traces  : — 

In  the  text  of  an  exorcism "  it 
appears  to  express  the  possibility  of  the  sacrifice  of  a  slave 
{amelut'i),  together  with  that  of  a  calf  or  a  sheep.  In  the 
legal  texts,*  the  burning  of  the  eldest  son  or  eldest  daughter 
upon  the  altar  of  Sin  and  Belit-zeri  is  threatened  in  the  event 
of  a  broken  covenant.  This  perhaps  veils  the  remembrance 
of  ancient  child-sacrifice.  Possibly  the  same  holds  good  of 
passages  in  the  inscriptions  of  the  kings,  as  those  of  Assur- 
banipal :  ^  "  Their  boys  and  maidens  I  burned  in  the  furnace." 
Ceremonial    slaughter    of  human    beings    is,   at    least,   not  an 

^  The  idea  has  already  been  met  with,  p.  51,  of  j-ij'/r  =  goat,  in  the  motifs  of 
the  Esau-Jacob  stories. 

-  Sayce's  assertions  in  the  essay  "  On  Human  Sacrifice  among  the  Babylonians  " 
{Transactions  of  the  Soc.  of  Bibl.  Arch.,  iv.  25  ;  comp.  Zeitschr.  f.  Keilschrift., 
ii.  282)  rest  upon  a  mischievous  misunderstanding.  The  passage  in  question  is 
not  trcating  of  human  sacrifice  (HI.  Rawl.  64),  butofgrain,  which  is  scorched  in 
the  heat  of  the  sun  ;  and  the  passage  noted  by  Lenormant,  fLtiides  accadiennes, 
iii.  112,  as  a  Fragment  upon  sacrifice  of  children,  resolves  itself  upon  closer  ex- 
amination  into  the  harmless  exorcism  of  a  magician,  who  brings  the  various  parts 
of  the  human  body  into  his  priestly  manipulations  (IV.  Rawl.  26). 

•'■  Bu  88-5-12,  5,  line  34  ;  see  Zimmern,  K.A.  T.,  3rd  ed.,  599. 

■*  Johns,  Assyr.  Deeds. 

5  K.B.,  i.  91. 


142     FURTHER  GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 

unheard-of  thing  among>t  the  A^isyrians.  Assurbanipal  relates 
(V.  R.  4,  70  fF.)  that  by  the  same  colossal  bull,  near  which 
his  father  Sennacherib  was  murdered,  he  slew  Babylonian 
prisoners  of  war  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  dead.^  The  seal 
cylinder  reproduced  in  fig.  147  is,  to  our  judgment,  the  only 
one  amongst  those  known  up  to  the  present  which  might  be 
taken  into  consideration  on  the  question  of  representation  of 
human  sacrifice.- 


FlG.  148. — Artificiallyenlarged  volcanicchasm  in  the  Roman  Forum  (Lacus  Curlius, 
entrance  to  the  Ünderworld).     (From  a  photograph  taken  by  the  author.) 

Le\ .  xxi. :  Regulation«  upon  the  qualifications  for  the  priest- 
hood.  On  Babylonian  territory  we  know  of  nearly  related 
regulations  about  the  soothsaying  priest,  but  which  would 
certainly  also  have  been  valid  for  other  classes  of  priests ;  see 
115,  on  the  regulations  about  physical  spotlessness  (Lev.  xxi. 
21).  The  priesthood  was  hereditary.  Only  people  of  legitimate 
birth  and   without    blemish    were  eligible.     Even   i)i  form  the 


*  Massacre  of  prisoners  is  metonymically  denoted  in  the  Old  Testament  as 
.n.T^  n;i,  Isa.  xxxiv.  6  ;  comp.  (  Sam.  xv.  33  and  Judges  ix.  5. 

-  The  studiesof  W.  H.  Ward's  "  Human  Sacrifices  on  Babyl.  Cylinders,"'  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Arch.,  v.  I.  34-39,  come  to  the  same  conclusion.  Fig. 
162  represents  the  destruction  of  an  idol. 


AARON 


14S 


regulations  agree  in  the  main  with  those  of  P  in  the  Old 
Testament :  there  is  a  preference  for  a  use  of  the  direct  address, 
in  the  second  person  of  the  present  tense,  not  in  the  imperative.^ 

Numb.  V.  15  fF.,  see  p.  111,  n.  5.  Numb.  x.  6,  12,  28  (stations), 
see  p.  105.  Numb.  x.  35  ff.,  see  pp.  135  f.  Numb.  xii.  1  (Zipporah), 
see  p.  285^  i. 

Numb.  xvi.  30:  The  earth  swallows  Korah's  band.  The 
earth  is  thought  of  as  Underworld  and  Dragon  ;  see  pp.  149,  i., 
n.  7,  and  195,  i. 


Fig.   149.  —  Boy  wrestling  with  serpent.      Relief  from  the  ruined  city  of  Petra. 
After  an  original  photograph  by  Dr  F.  Jeremias. 

The  story  of  Aaron  is  embroidered  with  fable.  There  is  the 
same  fable  motif  in  Plutarch^  ParaUel.  hist.  gr.  et  r-om.,  \.,  according 
to  which  Anchuros,  son  of  Midas,  throws  himself  into  a  yawning 
eliasm  in  ordei*  to  stop  a  plague.  The  opening  up  of  the  volcanic 
Lacus,  artificially  covered  with  asphalt^  in  the  Roman  Forum-  (fig. 
148),  to  which  the  well-known  fable  of  Curtius  Rufus  has  attached 
itself,  shows  how  such  fahles  link  themselves  on  to  natural  phenomena. 
Comp,  with  this,  Röscher,  Lexikon,  ii.  250  f.  (Steuding). 

Numb.  xvii.  8  ff. :  Aaron's  budding  stafF.  In  the  .same  way 
a  fable  motif  It  appears  to  have  been  to  stop  the  plague.  We 
recall    the  stafF  of  Hermes,    which    awoke    the   dead  (stafF  of 

'   See  upon  this  Zimmern,  K.A.  T.,  3rd  ed.,  589  ;  Beitr.,  Sl  ff. 
-  The  chasm  was  artificially  enlarged,  as  was  usual  in  other  places  also  with 
chasms  which  were  held  to  be  the  entrance  to  the  Underworld, 


144     FURTHER  GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 

.Esculapius ;  see  the  Ancient-Babylonian  prototvpe,  p.  319,  i., 
fig.  92),  and  the  club  of  Heracles  (Pausanias,  ii.  31,  13),  cut 
fi'om  an  olive-tree,  and  which,  leant  against  a  column  of  Hermes, 
bore   fresh    shoots.     According  to   Numb.  xvii.  10,  28,  rescue 

r 


Fig,  150. — High-placc 'jf  Tc'-r,!.      Ai:    :  .;       v.-'. 
photograph  by  Dr  F.  Jeremias. 

from  death  seems  to  have  been  attributed  to  Aaron's  stafF.     The 
motif  of  the  budding  stafF  (comp.   Heb.  ix.  4)  belongs  to  the 


Fig.   151.  —  Place  for  libation,  Petra. 

expectation  of  the   Deliverer;   it  is  related  to  the  nezer-zemali- 
moiW  (upon  this  see  p.  32). 

Numb.  XX.  27  (ff.) :  Mount  Hör,  the  death-place  of  Aaron. 
The  neiffhbourhood  of  Edomite  Petra  is  füll  of  traditions  of 
?.Ioses  and  Aaron.     In  the  Mosaic  sources,  it  is  from  the  rocks 


AARON'S   DEATH-PLACE 


145 


of  Petra  that  the  Mosaic  stream  was  compelled ;  and  the  Jebel 
NelDi  Harun,  towering  up  out  of  the  desert,  contains  the  grave  of 
Aaron,  held  in  high  honour  amongst  the  Moslems.^  There  is 
no  ground  for  doubting  the  identity  of  the  Jebel  Nebi  Harun 
with  the  Mount  Hör  of  the  Bible.  And  though  Petra  is  not 
nientioned  in  the  Bible  (Sela%  2  Kings  xiv,  7  ?  and  LXX.  upon 


.Hjij.V- 


FlG.  152. — Serpent  monument  (Petra).     After  an  original 
photograph  by  Dr  F.  Jeremias. 

^  Chron.  xxvi.  7),  and  was  not  colonised  in  the  oldest  period,  yet 
it  was  an  ancient  place  of  worship. 

Two  obelisks  stand  above  the  slopes  where  the  most  ancient 
Nabataean  graves  are  found,  landmarks  of  the  gods  of  Petra — 
Dusares  and  Allat  {i.e.  Tammuz-moon  and  Ishtar-sun).  The 
chief  festival  of  the  cult  of  Dusares  was  celebrated  in  the  winter 
solstice,     Under  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  town  were  found  two 

^  The  following  remarks  are  founded  upon  the  travelling  observations  of  Fr. 
Jeremias.     Comp,  also  Brünnow  and  Domaszewski,  Du  Provincia  Arabia,  vol.  i. 
VOL.    II,  10 


146     FURTHER  GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 

reliefs  of  a  child  Holding  a  rearing  serpent  in  both  hands,  and 
whose  body  is  also  clawed  at  by  the  paws  of  two  lions ;  see 
fig.  149. 

Not  far  from  the  obelisk.  npon  an  open  place  looking  out 
towards  Mount  Hör,  Stands  a  double  altar,  the  best-preserved 
distinct  specimen  of  a  hama.  The  chief  altar  (of  Dusares)  has 
a  gallery  round,  hewii  in  the  rock,  and  was  used  for  burnt 
sacrifices.  The  secondary  altar  (of  Allat)  shows  arrangenients 
for  sacrifices  of  libation.  There  is  a  large  court  heM'n  in  the 
rock  in  front  of  the  altars,  with  a  stone  plateau  in  the  centre, 
and  round  the  three  open  sides  a  place  to  sit,  in  the  form  of 
a  triclinium  ;  see  fig.  151. 

Numb.  xxi.  4  ff.  In  the  south  of  Petra,  on  the  way  to 
Mount  Hör,  therefore  in  the  neighbourhood  where  the  story 
of  the  brazen  serpent  is  laid,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
monuments  of  Petra.  Upon  a  massive  eube  base  a  giant  serpent 
coils  itself  round  a  stone  cone.  The  foundation  contains  a 
grave.     Upon  the  serpent,  see  p.  100  and  fig.  152. 

Numb.  xxii.  5 :  Pethor,  xcliich  is  hy  the  river  (nnhar), 
Balaam's  home.  With  Marquart,^  \ve  take  it  that  by  the  river 
is  to  be  understood  the  nahal  Muzri,  the  southern  boundary  of 
Judea,  which  by  a  misunderstanding  has  become  the  "  river  of 
Egypt."  Pitru  of  the  cuneiform  writings,  for  example,  ander 
Shalmaneser  H.,  K.B.,  i.  133,  which  was  in  Mesopotamia,  upon 
the  Sagur,  a  tributary  of  the  Euphrates,  cannot  be  held  to  be 
the  home  of  Balaam. 

Balaam 

This  figure  is  of  great  importance  in  the  inquiry  into  the  rela- 
tiou  between  the  heathen  and  tlie  Israelite  expeetation  of  the 
Dehverev.  His  figure  in  the  liistory  of  Israel  lias  its  analogy  in  the 
figure  of  Simon  Magus,  in  the  Acts.'-  Jewish  tlieology  recognises 
the  velationship ;  see  Dillmann  upon  the  passage.  He  was  lield  to 
be  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  inimical  power  (dark  half  of 
the  world,  Dragon)  in  the  story  of  the  deliverance  from  Egypt. 
Therefore,  in  the  legends,  Jannes  and  Jambres,  Pharaoh's  magicians, 

'  Fundamente  der  israelitischen   und  jüdischoi  Geschichte  ;   comp.  Winckler,  • 
K.A.T.,  srded.,  148. 

-  The  patriotic  writings  emphasise  the  relationship  to  which  Gfrörer  in  his  book 
upon  Primitive  Christianily  already  drew  attention. 


BAL  A  AM  24-y 

nof  »1™  vS,:°|,'r  5„7:'\='  '■'  /'-  Oriental  ,„ea„ing,  ,„,.  „hon, 


Fig.  i53._Shekel  of  Bar-Kochba. 
iJo\V^^rTZ' "7 '''''  blessing  xxii.  6,  con-esponds  to  the 

pcnver  of  the  Undenvorld,  and  of  the  da;k  h^lf  o^t   e ^  ^ th  1 1 
s  oulc   at  the  sarne  time  be  foreteller  of  the  new  agl'    '  It   •     •' 
the   essence  of  these    mytliological  figures  of  the  DelivPv.v       l 
represent  one-half  of  the'eycler  that  they  sho.dd  be  It  the  3!^: 

'   He  is  also  held  to    be   identical   with    Laban,    "whom  Jacob   would   have 
destroyed,  '  in  the  Jer.  Targ.  upon  Numb.  xxxi.  S.  ' 

of  the  Messmh,  w:th  the  same  features  attached  as  to  Balaam  in  the  Ter    Tareüm 
upon  Numb   ...XX,.  8  (journey  through  the  air  by  means  of  black  magic,  etc  ) 

■    It  IS  to  be  borne  in  mind,  in  regard  to  the  speaking  ass,  that  the  ass  is  the 
beast  of  the  peace-bringing  Messiah,  in  opposition'to  th!  horse  of  the  conque  o 

ot  the  Middle  Ages  the  speaking  ass  proclaimed  the  iMessiah 

into7hr''^'r^  '°.°"u   °^  '^'  ''"'^  ""'^"^^  °f  ^^'  O"^"^^'  conception,  conversion 
into  the  contrary  highest  point  of  development,  comp,  pp   26  i 


148     FURTHER  GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 

time  foretellers  of  the  new  age.  Accordins;  to  the  pa^sage  quoted 
tVom  the  Targuin,  which  further  amplifies  the  record  about  the 
prophecies  of  Balaam,  he  foretold  all  the  täte  of  the  expected 
Deliverer.  The  emblenis  of  the  Deliverer  foretold  by  Balaam, 
Xumb.  xxiv.  17  (star  and  sceptre),  designate  him  as  a  royal  heavenly 
appearance,  who  Mould  bring  the  Golden  Age,  in  the  same  sense  as 

the  "lion  out  of  Judah,  who 
has  the  ruler's  sceptre  be- 
tween  his  feet "  ;  see  pp. 
i],  i.,  n.  1,  and  79,  nnd  note 
the  constellation  Leo,  Avhich 
has  Regulus  (royal  star)  be- 
tween  the  feet.^  It  seems 
to  US  not  out  of  the  ques- 
tion  that  the  celebrated 
prophecy  of  Balaam  foi'e- 
casts  the  horoscope  of  the 
expected  Deliverer  by  the 
rising  of  Regulus.  In  any 
case,  the  appearance  of  a 
star  in  the  east  must  be 
Fig.  154.— Late  Egyptian  calendar  picture.  thought  of  The  appearance 
After    Richter,   Phajitasten    des    Altertums.        /?.i      ^^   t  .     ^^  1 

T„r  •  '  otthe  Deliverer isannounced 

m  the  east  (ev  avaroAT/, 
Matt.  ii.  2;  see  B.N.T.,  50  ff.).  Under  Hadrian,  Bar-Kochba 
(i.e.  son  of  the  star),  protected  for  a  while  by  the  great  Akiba, 
proclaimed  himself  ^  star-king  in  the  sense  of  the  prophecy  of 
Balaam  :  see  fig.  153,  which  is  quite  in  the  feeling  of  the  Jewish 
expectation  of  the  Deliverer. 

Numb.  xxii.  4  (Moabite  instead  of  Midianite  ?) ;  see  p.  46,  n.  1. 

Numb.  xxiv.  J22 :  "  Then  Assijiia  shall  carry  thee  aieay 
captive.'"''  It  does  not  mean  Syrians.  The  deductions  in  K.A.T., 
2nd.  ed.,  156  f.,  are  frail.  It  treats  of  a  late  pas.sage  and  of  a 
threat  which  niight  apply  to  any  period. 

Numb.  XXV.  4  (hanging  up  before  Yahveh  in  the  face  of  the  sun)  ; 
see  p.  159,  n.  2.     Numb.  xxv.  43  with  Joshua  viii.  29. 

Deut.  iii.  9.  Senir  (Ezek.  xxvii.  5,  cypresses  from  Senir  with 
cedars  from  Lebanon)  is  a  name  for  Hermon,  Assyrian 
Saniru. 


'  The  foes  (powers  of  darkness)  are  in  Numb.  xxiv.  18  fixed  historically  as 
Moabites  and  bene-shet.  Possibly  the  latter  may  mean  the  Suti  mentioned 
at  p.  271. 

2  See  Klostermann  in  R.Fr.  Th.,  ßrdjed. 


TRACES   OF   THE   ETANA    MYTH 


149 


Deut.  iv.  19,  See  p.  181,  i.  Deut.  vi.  4-9,  see  p.  103.  Deut.  vii. 
14  f.  (motifs  of  the  blessed  age),  see  pp.  20,  n.  5,  58,  n.  2.  Deut, 
xvii.  3,  see  2  Kings  xxiii.  5.  Deut.  xi.  29,  xxvii.  1 1  fF.  ;  comp.  Joshua 
viii.  30  ff.  (the  aet  of  worship  on  Ebal  and  Gerizim),  see  pp.  24,  i ,  67. 
Deut.  xi.  30,  see  p.  99-  Deut.  xvii.  8  (gate  as  place  of  judgment), 
see  fig.  135.      Deut.  xix.  15,  see  p.  HO.      Deut.  xx.    19  (prohibition 


Fig.  155. — Etana's  ascension.     Cylinder  89,767,  Brit.  Museum.' 

ofcuttiug  düwu  trees),  see  p.  210,  n.  5,  and  Hg.  104.     Deut.  xxi.  18  f., 
see  p.  1 10. 

Deut.  xxii.  5  (nien  in  women's  clothes,  women  in  men's  clothes) 
points  tu  the  customs  of  worship  in  the  Service  of  the  hermaphro- 


Fig.  156.  —  Seal  cylinder,  suggestive  of  Etana's  ascension. 

dite  Astarte  ;    see  p.    123,  i.      At  eircumcision    Moslem   boys  wear 
girls'  clothes. 

Deut.  XXV.  12,  see  p.  1 10,  n.  5.     Deut,  xxvii.  24,  see  p.  11  I,  n.  2. 

Deut.  XXX.  12  presupposes  an  acquaintance  with  niyths  which 
teil  of  the  desire  for  a  longed-for  good  in  heaven  (Etana,  Adapa), 
or  beyond  the  sea  (Gilgamesh) ;  see  Deut,  xxxii.  11;  thus 
Zinmiern,  K.A.T.,  3rd.  ed.,  565  f. 

'  Comp.  O.L.Z.,  1906,  479  f. 


150     FURTHER  GLOSSES  UPON  THE  PENTATEUCH 


Deut.xxxii.  11  (comp.  Exod.  xix.  4)  shows  the  motifoftheEtana 

niyth.^  In  the  Assunip- 
tio  Mosi.s  X.  8  it  is  said  : 
"Thou  shalt  be  happy, 
Israel,  and  rise  (to  the 
stany  heaven)  upon  the 
wings  of  the  eagle  '^ ;  see 
flg.  155  f.  and  fig.  15G, 
which  represents  the  apo- 
theosis  of  Titus  in  the 
roof  of  the  Arch  of  Titus 
(comp.  fig.  157);  comp, 
further  the  })a.s,sage  froni 
the  Liturgy  of  Mithra 
reproduced  p.  239,  i.,  n.  8, 
and  Isa.  xiv.  12-15. 


Fig.  157. — Apotheosis  of  Titus,  in  the  vault 
of  the  triumphal  arch,  Rome. 


Deut,  xxxii.  IT ;  comp.  Ps.  cvi.  37,  and  p.  30.  Shcdhn  are  demon? 
(Sept  öaiiJiövKx).  Here, 
as  in  P.S.  cvi.  37  ("  they 
have  offered  their  sons 
to  the  shedhii  "  ;  comp. 
V.  38,  "the  idols  of 
Canaan ""),  the  word  is 
u.sed  in  a  general  sense 
for  "  idols  of  the  hea- 
then '' ;  comp.  liXX. 
of  Ps.  xcvi.  15:  "all 
the  gods  of  the  heathen 
are  demons.''  The  very 
frequently  mentioned 
pair  of  demons,  shcdn 
leiniiu  and  shedic  daniqn 


I'IG.  15S. — -Ganyniede  carried  by  the  eagle.  Greek 
gein,  aftcr  Richter,  Phantasien  des  Alterluiiis, 
Taf.  vii. 


(the  evil  and   the  good  shedu),  was    not    therefore    the    origin 
of  the  Biblical  shedlmr      Like  St  Paul,  1   Cor.   x.,  already  in 

>  See  Stucken,  loc.  cit.,  7  ;  Winckler,  O.L.Z.,  1901,  Sp.  2ß'j  =  K'rit.  Sehr.,  ii.  64. 

-  Besides,  if  sacrifices  were  made  to  the  Babylonian  shedim,  it  does  not 
follow  from  that  that  they  were  spirits  of  the  dead,  as  Zimmern  holds,  A'.A.  'f., 
3rd  ed.,  461   f.     The  invocation   is  to   be  judged  much  more  as  being  like  the 


MOSES^   DEATH-PLACE  151 

Israel   initiates   were  inclined    to   look    for   demoniacal  powers 
behind  the  heathen  idols, 

Deut,  xxxii.  49,  xxxiv.  1.  The  name  of  the  mountain  upon 
which  Moses  died  is,  according  to  Deut,  xxxiv.  1,  Pisgah,  in 
the  Abarim  Mountains.  Another  hand,  xxxii.  49,  o-iving 
preference  to  a  cosmic  mythological  motif,  names  the  mountain 
Xebo.^  Nebo  signifies,  in  the  cycle,  the  death-point  of 
Tammuz,  in  Opposition  to  the  Marduk  point ;  see  p.  9],  i 
There  is  an  echo  of  the  motif  in  the  name  Abarim  also,  'in 
the  division  into  two  of  the  cycle,  Nibiru  (Abarim)  is  the 
cntical  point,  as  Nebo  is  in  division  into  four  (comp.  p.  74,  i.). 
In  the  mythical  geography  of  the  expectation  of  the  Delive'rer^ 
Egypt  and  the  desert  correspond  to  the  dark  world  (correspond- 
mg  to  the  Winter  half  of  the  year).  Moses  beheld  from  hence 
the  land  "  where  milk  and  honey  flow,"  U  the  light-world 
(corresponding  to  the  summer  half  of  the  year).2 

Deut,  xxxüi.  2    see  p.  99-       Deut,  xxxiii.  8  (Moses   fights    for 
the  Unm  and  Thummim),  see  pp.  59,  105,  n.  3.     Deut.  Sxxiii.  9 
(motit  of  mu-aculous  birth  in  regard  to  Moses),  see  p.  90      Deut 
xxxm.  15  (Mountain  of  the  World),  see  p.  189,  i.     Deut,  xxxiii.  16, 
see  p.  99.     Deut,  xxxiv.  7  and  xxxiv.  8,  see  p.  93. 

present-day  "  devil-worship  "  in  America  :  they  sacrifice  to  them,  in  order  to  avert 
their  evil  influence. 
"  See  previously  p.  93. 
Comp.  pp.  34,  i.   ff.,  31,  and  others.     In  the  journey  of  .^neas  of  Troy  to 
Etruria  the  same  motif  comes  in. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

GLOSSES    UPON    THE    BOOK    OF    JOSHUA 

How  is  the  colonisation  of  Canaan  by  the  "  Children  of  Israel '' 
to  be  looked  upon  according  to  Ancient-Oriental  circamstances  r 
The  land  already  possessed  places  of  worship,  which  were  at  the 
same  time  centres  of  civilisation.     Some  of   these  places,  like 
Hebron,    Sichern,    Beersheba,   Peniel,  and    Mahanaim,   show    a 
connection  with  the  primitive  ages  of  the  Children  of  Israel. 
The  conquerors  would  have  annexed  these  and  introduced  their 
religion  into  theni,^  much  in  the  same  way  as  Christian  churches 
were  built  upon  pre-Christian  Celtic,  Germanic,  and  Slav  places 
of  worship.     In  this    colonisation    the    ancient    provinces  were 
taken  possession  of  by  the  family  groups  of  the  Israelite  tribes. 
The  ancient  population,   when    not    expelled    and  rooted  out, 
became    slaves   and  were   gradually  absorbed.     But   under  the 
new    groups    the    land    asserted    its    civilisation.       The    family 
groups    became    provincial    groups.       Up    to    this    time    the 
vaiious    clans    were  held  together  by  blood-relationship.     The 
authority    of   the    "eiders"    rested    simply    upon    familiär    re- 
cognition.       Now    other    powers    began    to    work.       It  became 
necessary    to    hold    the    nearer    and    more    distant    provinces 
together  by  political  authority.       If  the   settlers    in    the    dis- 
trict    were     farmers,     then     their    head    was    the    rösh,    the 
"  lord  of  the  province."      But  if,  however,  a    city  formed  the 
centre  of  the   province,  then  there  arose  a   niunicipal  govern- 
ment;   the  leaders   of  the    nobles,    that   is    to    say,    the    free- 
men    and    the   artisans,    formed    the    College    of   the    "  elders,"" 
zeketihn. 

'  Compare  also  the  "  allars  of  Isaac,"  Anios  vii.  9,  16. 


ENTRY   INTO    CANAAN  153 

Compare  the  quoting  of  names,  specially  the  names  of  witnesses, 
in  the  New  Babylonian  contracts.     It  is  either : 

A,  son  of  X,  the  son  of  Y  (the  graudfather  is  named  :  often  it  is 
the  head  of  the  tribe,  not  the  man's  own  grandfather) — the 
noble,  Ol"  freeman,  is  named  thus, 
or : 
A;,  son  of  X,  the  son  of  the  ul  idi  {i.e.  son  of  the  "  unnamed  ")  or 
lä  manvian — the  freeman  for  some  reason  or  other  addition- 
ally  recognised  as  such  is  thus  named ;  perhaps  this  is  the 
mushkenu  (in  Opposition  to  the  ruhü\  comp.  pp.  31,  140), 
or : 
A,  son  of  X,  the  son  of  the  nappahu  ("smith,"  or  some  other 
handicraftsman) — the  guild  member  was  named  thus.^ 

If,  before  the  conq  liest,  the  city  was  the  seat  of  a  king,  the 
next  stage  would  follow  naturally :  a  kingdom  would  arise. 
The  Book  of  Judges  reflects  these  circumstances.  Jephthah, 
Judges  xi.,  shows  the  primitive  condition  :  he  is  r6sh\  Abi- 
nielech,  Judges  ix.,  is  already  king  in  the  sense  referred  to.- 

In  itself  the  taking  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan  by  the 
"  Children  of  Israel''''  may  be  considered  as  a  gradual  immigra- 
tion  or  as  a  conquest.  If  we  accept  the  gradual  immigration, 
it  would  happen  spasmodically,  until,  gradually,  under  the 
inüuence  of  the  new  circumstances,  it  attained  to  a  political, 
that  is  to  say,  a  religious,  unity."  But  one  thing  is  then 
impossible  :  no  sort  of  political  or — what  is  the  same  thing  for 
the  Ancient-East — religious  bond  could  previously  have  linked 
together  the  various  parts  of  the  later  "Children  of  Israel.'" 
For  any  such  bond  must  have  been  lost  in  the  fitful  migrations, 
and  a  Separation  must  have  arisen  between  the  settled  and  the 
wandering.     This,  however,  is  contradicted  by  the  fundamental 

'  That  this  was  exactly  the  same  vvith  the  Israelites  may  be  seen  in  the  exiles  : 
the  rieh  and  those  who  understood  a  craft  (the  artisans)  were  taken  away.  Upon 
the  "unnamed,"  comp.  Paltiel  of  Gallim,  son  of  La-ish  {i.e.  of  nobody),  i  Sam. 
XXV.  44,  and  the  old  names  of  Dan,  Judges  xviii.  27  f ,  and  Joshua  xix.  47  :  La-ish 
and  La-shem  (thus  to  be  read,  with  Winckler,  instead  of  0»'^))  ^■^-  "  nameless  " 
=  "  non-existent"  (to  have  a  name  =  to  exist,  see  pp.  145,  i.  and  274). 

-  An  Opposition  to  jSo  is  'O'ht:;,  tyrannus,  Prov.  x.  5. 

••  Thus  the  prevalent  view,  advocated  in  particular  by  Stade,  and  which  Starts 
from  the  premise  that  originally  Judah  did  not  belong  to  Israel.  We  hold  this 
premise  to  be  falsa.  H.  Winckler  has  started  from  the  same  premise,  but  then 
draws  the  logical  conclusion  :  If  Yahveh  was  only  the  god  of  Judah,  and  that  in 
the  sense  of  the  Ancient-Oriental  teaching,  he  could  not  have  been  at  the  same 
time  the  god  of  Israel. 


154      GLOSSES   UPON   THE    BOOK   OF  JOSHUA 

idea  of  all  national  Israelite  tradition.  And  all  modern  repre- 
senters  are  united  in  this  (though,  indeed,  entirely  in  contra- 
diction  to  their  own  premises),  that  at  the  Red  Sea  or  near 
Kade^sh  Barnea  some  great  event  happened  which  served  as  a 
religious  .sign  to  all  time,  and  that  the  Magna  Charta  was 
given  at  Sinai,  which  Stands  as  the  central  point  of  the  religion 
of  the  whole  state  of  Israel  Judah.  The  Biblical  tradition, 
theiefore,  speaks  consistently  of  a  conquest  of  the  land  under 
a  uniform  leadership  (Joshua)  and  under  a  uniform  idea.^ 

There  arises  here  only  the  question  as  to  whether  it  is 
conceivable,  under  the  supposition  given  to  us  by  the  knowledge 
of  the  Ancient-East,  gathered  from  monuments  and  history, 
that  a  religious  movement  could  be  the  banner  under  which 
sucli  a  conquest  could  accomplish  itself.  That  this  is  possible 
is  shown  by  the  religions  of  the  East  to  the  present  day. 
The  most  obvious  example  is  the  religious  movement  under 
Mohammed. 

Joshua 

Joshua  is  an  Israelite  figure  of  the  Deliverer,  like  Moses. 
His  share  in  the  law-giving  has  been  suppressed  in  the  text 
before  us,  doubtless  in  favour  of  Moses.  The  passage  through 
Jordan  under  Joshua  corresponds  to  the  passage  through  the 
Red  Sea  under  Moses.  The  rescue  from  the  power  of  Egypt 
corresponds  to  the  conquest  of  the  Canaanite  kings.  In  both 
cases  the  strife  and  the  victory  are  presented  in  the  colour  of 
the  victory  over  the  Dragon. 

^  Astral  Mythological  Motifs 

I.  His  naine  deiiotes  him  as  Deliverer.-  In  Exod.  xvii.  9  hc 
appt-ars  as  the  helper  of  Moses^  and  in  Exod.  xxxiii.  1 1  he  i?  called 
"  the  son  of  NTin."  In  these  uames  the  motifs  are  veiled.  "The 
son  of  the  Fish  "  would;,  in  Babyloiiian,  signify  either  Ea  himself  (see 
pp.  47,  i.  f.  ;  this  might  agree  with  Joshua  as  lawgiver),  or  Ea's  son, 

'  It  includes  the  country  east  of  Jordan  against  the  original  design.  The  con- 
quest of  the  land  west  of  Jordan  was  the  aim.  Ezekiel  confines  the  land  of  the 
future  to  the  country  west  of  Jordan. 

-  At  any  rate  in  the  populär  etymology  rt^spin  and  nv^mn-  ;  comp.  Sept.,  Irjo-oDj. 
In  the  Talmud  Joshua  is  recognised  as  a  Messiah  type  of  the  future. 


JOSHUAS   CONQUESTS  155 

Marduk.i  As  such  he  is,  on  the  one  side,  him  to  whom  God  reveals 
his  wisdom  (as  in  Exod.  vü.  1  :  "  I  make  thee  a  god  to  Pharaoh,  and 
Aaron  shall  be  thy  prophet "  ;  see  p.  93) ;  and  on  tlie  other  side 
the  DeHverer,  who  conquers  the  power  of  darkness  and  brings  the 
new  age. 

2.  He  passes  over  Jordan.  In  Joshua  iii.  l6  the  waters  stopped 
before  the  ark,  and  "  stood  upright  like  a  wall."  In  this  is  the 
Standing  typical  motif  of  the  disruption  of  the  Dragon.- 

3.  Twelve  stones  were  erected  "in  Gilgal,"  Exod.  iv.  20,  after  the 
passage  over  Jordan  (Gilgal  itself  signifies  the  sacred  stone  circle).° 
After  the  passage  through  the  waters,  which  has  the  same  signifi- 
cance,  in  Joshuas  work,  as  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  under  Moses, 
the  new  world  was  symbolically  built  by  the  erection  of  the  twelve 
stoneSj  corresponding  to  the  twelve  stations  of  the  zodiac  which 
the  Conqueror  of  the  Dragon  erected  in  order  to  build  the  new 
world.4  The  pesilim  at  Gilgal,  Judges  iii.  19,  seem  to  indicate  these 
stones. 

4.  The  conquest  over  the  five  kings  at  Gibeon,  Joshua  x.,  shows  the 
motifs  of  the  conquest  over  the  power  of  darkness  (winter).  Hence 
the  number  five — see  pp.  QS,  i.,  and  42^  n.  1  (five  kings,  Geii.  xiv.  9  ; 
Lev,  xxxi.  8) — corresponding  to  the  five  intercalary  days,  which  fall 
before  the  beginning  of  spring  and  which  represent  the  entire 
winter.^     Joshua  x.  12  f  :    Then  spake  Joshua  : 

'^  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon, 
And  thou,  moon,  in  the  valley  of  Aijalon  ! 
And  the  sun  stood  still  and  the  nioon  stayed." 

1  ütherwise  Winckler,  O.L.Z.,  1901,  357. 

-  See  p.  93  ;  Winckler,  Gesch.  hr.,  ii.  236  f.  Stucken's  deductions,  Astral- 
niylhen,  164  ff.,  which,  by  connecting  Joshua  with  the  spies  and  with  Achan,  see 
in  the  Book  of  Joshua  the  whole  complex  of  the  Dragon-combat  motifs,  hang  too 
much  upon  one  point.  The  analogies  of  the  Rig  Veda  (Stucken  calls  the  Book  of 
Joshua  the  Sennitic  Rig  Veda)  are  surprising. 

•■  The  vague  heaping  of  stones  in  Jordan  (Joshua  iv.  9)  in  the  present  text  is 
something  quite  different,  which  belongs  to  another  source.  Winckler  suggests, 
loc.  cit.,  ii.  107,  the  remnants  of  a  record  of  bridge-buiiding. 

"*  Compare  the  twelve  tower  altars,  which  Alexander  erected  to  Hyphasis  on 
the  boundary  of  his  conquests,  Arrian,  v.  29  ;  see  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.^  ii.  107. 

''  See  p.  42,  and  n.  i.  Accuratcly,  the  equalisation  between  the  solar  and 
lunar  year  amounts  to  5^.  The  fraction  appears  in  the  myth  also  as  motif  of  the 
Bringer  of  Spring  (the  "  dwarf  "  who  conquers  the  giant).  But  usually  it  is  added 
to  the  winter  giant,  who  is  about  five  ells  and  a  span  high,  or  has  six  fingers  and 
six  toes  (see  upon  the  story  of  Goliath,  pp.  180  f.).  Another  number,  which 
represents  the  power  of  winter,  is  twelve  (founded  upon  twelve  epagomena, 
equalisation  of  354  and  366  ;  compare  our  Twelfth-night).  This  motif  lies  in 
Gen.  xiv.  4  (pp.  19  f.),  Joshua  xxiv.  12,  in  the  "  twelve  kings  of  the  Amorites. " 
According  to  Acts  xiii.  19,  seven  nations  were  driven  out  of  Canaan  ;  this  like- 
wise  is  a  motif  number. 


156      GLOSSES    UPON    THE    BOOK   OF   JOSHUA 

In  this  passage,  which  is  communicated  explicitly  as  a  poetic 
quotation,  the  characteristic  of  the  stars  as  warriors  shoiild  be 
borne  in  mind  (comp.  Judges  v.  20:  "The  stars  fought  in  their 
stations  "  ;  see  p.  l64,  or  fig.  159,  where  sun,  moon,  and  Venus  appear 
as  onlookers  to  the  fight,  as  is  indicated  by  their  position  at  the 
head  of  every  record).  It  seems,  however,  chiefly  to  be  treatiiig  of 
an  estabhshed  motif  of  the  Dragon  combat.  In  the  Rig  Veda  the 
Dragon-slayer  Indra  accomplislies  the  same  niiracle  in  the  fight 
with  the  üevas.  The  issue  of  the  battle  hangs  upon  wliether  the 
day  will  be  long  enoiigh.  Then  Indra  drags  off  une  wheel  of  the 
sun's  chariot,  and  thereby  delays  its  com'se.^  But  this  Avould  not 
exclude  the  other  presentment,  that  sun  and  moon  were  called  upon 
as  lookers  on.     That  this  is  correct  is  shown  by  figs.  159  and  l60. 


\mM 


'^\  'MV' '■'■■^**^^^ 


IfMüH^C 


l'"u;.    159.  —  Hittile   relief.     Berlin   Museum.     Teshup  fights  the  lion.     Sun-god 
and  Moon-god  conie  tu  his  lielp  (so-called  "  lion-hunt  of  Sakye-Gözu  '")  - 

Fig.  159  shows  a  Hittite  relief  where  sun  and  moon  help  Teshu}) 
(  ■=  Marduk  ;  see  p.  124,  i.)  in  a  fight  with  a  lion.  The  sun  Stands 
with  bow  and  arrow  in  the  chariot,  the  moon  bears  the  spear.  The 
four  rosettes  indicate  the  missing  four  planets.  Fig.  16O  shows  a 
sculpture  from  Sueda,  in  Hauran.  Jupiter  is  here  fighting  against 
a  monster  hurling  stones,  with  the  body  of  a  serpent  and  paws  of 
a  lion  ;  the  sun  is  looker-on,  but  the  moon  is  marked  by  a  rosette. 

Joshua  X.  15  ff.  The  five  kings  hide  themselves  in  the  cave  at 
Makkedah  (cave  =  Underworld).  Joshua  has  them  dragged  out  and 
impaled,  and  at  sunset  their  bodies  tln-own  into  the  cave,  Avhich 
was  closed  with  great  stones.     "There  they  lie  unto  this  very  day." 


'  2  Chron.  xxviii.  iS  names  Aijalon  logether  with  Betli-shemesh.  The  city 
appears  to  be  connected  with  moon-worship.  Gibeon  was  certainly  a  place  of 
sun-worship  in  Canaan,  before  it  was  takcn  as  a  place  of  worship  for  Yahveh 
(i  Kings  iii.  4  ;  i  Chron.  xxi.  29)  ;  see  p.  151. 

-  According  to  Humann  and  Puchstein,  Reisen  in  Kleinasieii  und  Nordsy7-ien, 
table  xlvi.  ;  comp.  VVinckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  96  f. 


JOSHUAS   CONQUESTS 


157 


See   lipon   this   and  lipon   the   variant    of    the    myth,   the    Seven 
Sleepers^  p.  42,  i. 

Also  the  "rain  of  stones  "  which,  Joshua  x.  ]  ],  comes  to  his  aid, 
belongs  to  tlie  typical  j^henomena  of  the  Dragon  combat.  Comp. 
p.  42,  i.  ;  Winckler^F.,  iii.  207.  Sura  Ixvii.  5  :  "^•' We  have  decorated 
the  lower  heaven  with  lights  (meteorites)  in  order  to  stone  Satan 
witli  them."  ^  We  must  think  of  meteorites.  LikeAvise  in  the 
fire-flood,  Rev.  xvi.  21.^ 

Joshua  V.  13  fF.  records  a  vision  in  which  Jo.shua  sees  by 
Jericho  the  "  leader  of  hosts  of  Yahveh  "  with  "  drawn  sword.'" 
He  is  to  take  ofF  his  shoes,  for  he  stands  upon  holy  ground. 
This  appearance  is  the  sanie  as  in  the  story  of  Balaani,  Le^-. 
xxii.  23  (see  pp.  236,  i.  and  liT).    It  seenis  as  though  the  entrance 


Mii'i  -^YM'^ 


Fig.  i6o. — Sculpture  from  Sueda  in  Hauran.     Published  by 
Clermont-Ganneau,  Ettides  (Tarch.  Orient.,  i.  179. 

to  the  throne  of  God  was  meant,  as  in  the  vision  of  Moses  at 
Horeb,  see  p.  99.  The  angel  with  the  drawn  sword  would 
then  correspond  to  the  presentments,  spoken  of  p.  42,  i.,  of 
Paradise  barred.  Compare  also  1  Chron.  xxi.  16,  where  in  the 
variant  upon  2  Sam.  xxiv.  the  angel  with  the  sword  commands 
that  the  altar  be  built  there,  where,  later,  the  earthly  copy  of 
the  heavenly  throne  was  to  stand, 

♦  Joshua  vi.  1  ff.  ;  The  conquest  of  Jericho.  Upon  the  procession 
with  the  ark,  see  p.  130.  In  Mecca  the  procession  passes  seven 
times  round  the  Kaaba.  Upon  the  number  seven,  pp.  QQ,  i.  f.  Isolated 
motifs,  like  the  scarlet  thread,  Joshua  ii.  18  (compare  the  scarlet 
thread  in  the  birth  of  Zerah,  Gen.  xxxviii.  28),  in  Rahab's  house,  and 
in  the  conquest  itself  the  blowing  down  of  tlie  walls,  are  not  yet  inter- 


'  Comp.  Sura,  xv.  5  ff.     According  to  the  Arabian  fable  they  climbed  up  into 
the  zodiac,  and  shared  with  the  sorcerers  the  secrets  of  the  divine  will. 


158      GLOSSES    UPON   THE    BOOK   OF  JOSHUA 

preted.  In  populär  etymology  the  name  Jericho  woiild  probably 
be  understood  as  "moon-city."  Since  it  incorporates  here  the 
inimicil  power,  vre  must  think  of  the  motif  of  the  battle  against 
tlie  dark  moon  (compare  the  blast  upon  the  day  of  New  Moon  of  the 
seventh  month,  Lev.  xxiii.  2i,  and  the  jubilee  after  7x7  years). 
The  same  motif  (only  an  imitation  ?)  is  showii  in  the  story  of  the 
pseudo-Messiah,  in  Josephus,  Ant.,  xx.  8,  6,  who  would  destroy  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  by  his  word  from  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Also 
the  name  Rahab  (Dragon,  see  pp.  IQ-l,  i.  f )  seems  to  be  a  motif  nanie. 
The  scarlet  thread'gives  a  hint  of  the  Dragon  motif  (see  pp.  152,  i.  ; 
51,  n.  3),  and  reflects  the  turn  of  things  again  :  with  the  conquesl 
of  Jericho  the  new  age  dawns.  In  the  revolution  of  things  Rahab 
is  transported  into  the  new  age.^  -':' 

Joshua  vi.  26 :  When  he  lays  the  fo7üulation  {of  the  cHy)  H 
costs  Mm  his  ß7'st-bo?'7i,  and  when  he  sets  up  the  gutes  thei-eof, 
his  yonngest  son.  In  this  poetic  passage  (comp.  1  Kings  xvi. 
34)  lies  a  remembrance  of  the  building  saerifice.-  The  religious 
ground  of  this  is :  the  divinity  dwells  in  the  threshold  (comp. 
p.  103).^  In  Mutesellim  (Megiddo)  was  found  latelv  a  skeleton 
built  into  the  wall. 

Joshua  vii.  21  :  The  Babylonian  mdiitk.  Evidence  of  Baby- 
lonian  civilisation  in  pre-Israelite  Canaan.  The  usual  explana- 
tion  as  Babylonian  "  fashion "  does  not  agree  with  Oriental 
nature,  at  least  in  antiquity. 

Achan  appropriates  to  himself  from  the  spoil  consecrated  to 
Yahveh,  a  Babylonian  mantle,  two  hundred  shekels  of  silver,  and 
a  "gold  wedge  "  of  fifty  shekels  weight.  It  is  probably  treating  of 
a  weighed  j)iece  of  metal,  in  place  of  whicli  stamped  coins  were 
used  later,  comp.  p.  .50. 

Joshua  vii.  26 :  The  heaping  up  of  stones  is  done  to  the 
present    day    in    building   a    giave    amongst    the   Arabs.     The 

'  The  genealogy  in  Matt.  i.  lays  equal  stress  upon  her  as  upon  Tamar  and 
Ruth,  which  is  very  noteworthy.  Kimchi  communicates  a  tradition  in  the  com- 
mentary  lo  Joshua  according  to  which  she  was  Joshua's  wife  :  compare  also  the 
emphasising  of  "  Rahab  the  harlot,"  Heb.  xi.  31. 

-  Compare  upon  the  building  saerifice,  Sartori,  Zeitschr.f.  EihnoL,  1898,  i.  53  ; 
upon  the  passage,  Kuenen,  0?trie7-z.,  znd  ed.,  233  ;  Winckler,  A'rit.  Schriften,  ii, 
12  f. 

'  Otherwise  in  Stucken,  Asfrahnythen,  184  :  the  corpse  was  to  keep  away  the 
demon  ;  he  sees  that  the  work  is  already  done  here.  We  Interpret  thus  also  the 
blood  upon  the  doorposts  ;  see  pp.  103  f. 


BETH-DAGON  159 

supplementary  increase  of  the  heap  was  reputed  to  be  an  honour 
to  the  dead.^ 

^  Joshua  viii.  18  and  26 :  The  outstvetched  lance  presents  a  Dragon- 
combat  motif,  and  indeed  a  Moon-motif ;  see  p.  114,  i.,  and  fig.  l60.>f^ 

Joshua  viii,  29 ;  comp.  x.  26  f.  :  The  malefactor  was  hanged 
upon  a  tree  until  the  going  down  of  the  sun.  Crncifixion  ':' 
Sept.  iir]  ^vXov  SiSuiuov.  The  hanged  passed  for  a  histration 
before  the  divinity.- 

Joshua  viii.  30  ff.  ;  see  p.  67.  Joshua  viii.  32  (stone  codes  of 
law);  see  p.  118.  Joshua  viii.  33  (the  placing  of  six  tribes  upon 
Ebal  and  six  upon  Gerizim) ;  see  p.  67.  Joshua  x.  1  (Adoni- 
zedek) ;  see  p.  -il.  Joshua  x.  1  ff.  (conquest  of  the  five  kings, 
rain  of  stones)  ;  see  pp.  155  f.  Joshua  x.  26  f.  (impaling)  ;  see  upon 
viii.  29. 

Joshua  xiii.  3  :  Upon  the  seaport  towns,  see  map,  No.  IL, 
Canaan  in  the  Amarna  period. 

Joshua  XV.  41  :  Beth-dagon,  the  name  of  the  city  mentioned 
also  by  Sennacherib  together  with  Joppa  (Bit-Daganna,  X.B., 
ii.  93),  and  probably  identical  with  the  present  Bethdegän, 
south-east  from  Joppa,  contains  the  name  of  the  Phihstine  god 
Dagon.^  Judses  xvi.  23  mentions  a  sacrificial  feast  for  Dason  in 
Gaza,  xvi.  24,  a  song  in  praise  of  Dagon,  and,  according  to 
1  Sam.  V.  1  ff.,  he  has  a  temple  in  Ashdod.  Since  the  name 
occurs  also  in  the  Amarna  Letters,*  and,  on  the  other  band, 
in  South  Babylonia  in  the  name  of  the  ancient  king  Ishme- 
Dagan,  of  the  dynasty  of  Isin,''  it  proves  that  it  refers  to  a 
Canaanite  divinity,  whose  name  was  met  with  by  the  Philistines 
after  their  immigration,  and  adopted  as  the  name  of  one  of 
their  chief  gods,  just  as  for  their  feminine  divinity  they  have 

^  See  Holzinger  upon  the  passage  ;  Wellhausen,  /?esie  arab.  Heidentums,  80. 

"  2  Sam.  xxi.  6,  to  hang  nirT^,  and  Numb.  xxv.  4,  hlt'?  cas'n  i:^,  "before 
Yahveh  in  the  face  of  the  sun,"  can  only  be  understood  as  a  rudimentary  form  of 
sun-offering.  When  the  crucified  must  be  taken  down  before  sunset,  in  the 
historical  case,  the  reason  was  in  the  festival  law,  but  this  explanation  is  at  the  root 
of  it  ;  ses  B.JV.r.,  22  f. 

^  Jensen,  Kosmologie,  449  ff.  ;  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  i.  216  f. 

■*  Dagan-takala  is  the  name  of  a  scribe,  K'.B.,  v.,  No.  215  f.  ;  compare  further, 

P-  350>  i- 

■"'  In  the  wall  of  the  southern  temple  of  IVIukayyar,  see  K.B,,  iii,,  ist  ed,,  p.  87  ; 
also  in  proper  names  upon  the  obelisk  of  Manishtusu. 


160     GLOSSES   UPON   THE   BOOK   OF  JOSHUA 

the  name  'Ashtoreth,  'Ashtarte,  in  common  witli  the  Phoenicians 
(1  Kings  xi.  5;  comparo  with  1  Sam.  xxxi.  10).  According  to 
the  H.C.  (introduction  4,  28),  Dagon  was  the  god  especially 
honoured  by  Hammurahi-s  people  or  tribe  ;  Hammurabi  says  he 
has  overthrown  the  dwelHng-places  at  Ud-kib-nun-na  of  the 
dominion  of  Dagon,  his  father.  Further  upon  Dagon,  see 
1    Sam.   V.   1   ff',  and  p.  175. 

Tlie  comparison  with  Ea- Cannes  is  probably  riglitly  rejected  bv 
Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  S58.  Yet  the  presentment  of  Dagon 
as  a  divinity  of  fish-form,  whicli  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  bold 
conchision  from  the  depraved  text  of  1  Sam.  v.  4,  remains  probable. 
According  to  Kimcln',  from  the  navel  upwards  he  liad  the  body  of 
a  man.  If  Abarbanel  knew  a  tradition  according  to  which  Dagon 
also  had  the  feet  of  a  man,  it  should  be  noted  that  also  Ea-Oannes 
had  human  feet  under  the  fish's  tail  ;  see  fig.  ;>2,  p.  105  ;  Joshua 
xvi.  6  f.  (Janoah),  see  p.  334,  i.,  n.  ]  :  Joshua  xix.  20  (Rabbith), 
see  p.  342,  i. 

Joshua  xix.  44 :  Eltekeh  is  mentioned  by  Sennacherib.  He 
destroyed  Tamna  (Ti»nnah  in  \.  43)  and  Eltekeh  and  then  went 
to  Ekron  in  order  to  reinstate  the  banished  Pacli. 

Joshua  XX.  (right  of  sanctuary) ;  see  p.  111,  n.  2,  and  p.  'yß. 
Joshua  xxiv.  32 ;  see  p.  67. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 


THE    BOOK    OF    JUDGES 


The  Israelites  were  ruled  by  shophetim  ^  before  the  institution 
of  a  kingdom.  We  have  shown,  pp.  152  ff.,  the  state  of  things 
after  they  settled  in  the  land,  with  differing  laws  according 
to  whether  it  was  a  country  district  or  a  city ;  it  is  not  his- 
torical  that  the  "  twelve  tribes"  were  under  uniform  leadership 
and  administration  by  tvvelve  judges.  The  form  of  the  tradition 
as  it  hes  before  us  also  in  no  case  asserts  that  the  tribes  were 
only  united  under  one  of  the  judges.  Joshua  xviii,  2  seems  to 
recognise  an  Organisation  of  five  tribes.  According  to  the  word 
of  command  in  Judges  i.  2,  "  Judah  shall  go  before,"  the  leading 
place  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  The  "judges"  may  be 
looked  upon  historically  as  heroic  populär  leaders,  who  led 
isolated  tribes,  or  a  group  of  tribes,  into  battle  against  the  other 
nations,  and  who  were  authorities  in  the  administration  of 
justice  (comp.  Judges  iv.  5,  where  Deborah  gives  judgment 
under  the  sacred  tree),  The  number  twelve,  to  which  the  twelve 
tribes  are  analogous,  is  an  artificial  scheme,  laboriously  con- 
structed  by  including  unimportant  figures  (five  "lesser  judges," 
Shamgar,  iii.  31,  is  superfluous)  out  of  the  certainly  rieh  tradi- 
tionary  material  regarding  the  leaders  of  past  ages.^ 

Religion  in  the  so-called  period  of  the  judges  was  in  a 
decadent  stage,  though  pure  Yahveh  religion  must  have  been 
alive  even  at  this  time  in  a  small  circle.     The  populär  Yahveh 

1  The  Suffetes  of  the  Carthaginians,  who  were  chosen  by  them  as  holders  of 
executive  powers,  have  the  same  natne  ;  possibly  also  there  exists  an  actual 
connection  of  fact.  Organisation  is  in  the  East  everywhere  the  outcome  of  the 
same  teaching. 

2  See  Budde,  Richter,  p.  x  ;  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  115  ff. 

VOL.    IT.  161  11 


162  THE   BOOK   OF  JUDGES 

religion  (see  p.  15),  traces  of  which  arc  shown  in  the  tradition, 
was  stronglv  inipregnated  with  heathen  elements.^  The  worship 
was  carried  on  in  sanctuaries  erected  upon  places  connected 
with  the  primitive  age,  or  over  heathen  places  of  worship,  or  at 
spots  reniiniscent  of  great  events  (see  Judges  vi.  25  ff'.).  They 
were  held  as  a  kind  of  chapel  of  ease  for  the  sanctuary  at  Shiloh 
(p.  343,  i.).  For  we  see,  by  the  example  in  Judges  xvii.  10,  that 
unemployed  Levites  applied  for  the  office  of  priest  at  such 
sanctuaries.  Superstitious  niisuse,  hoAvever,  was  made  of  the 
ephod  and  teraphini  (Judges  viii.  27 ;  xvii.  3 ;  xviii.  17  ff.  ; 
xviii.  31,  comp,  xviii.  24;).  The  central  point  of  religious 
thought,  at  this  period  also,  was  the  expectation  of  the 
Deliverer.  The  Song  of  Deborah  prai^es  the  delivering  God 
who  is  to  come  from  Sinai.  In  the  stories  of  Gideon  and 
Samson  and  others  the  most  various  motifs  of  the  Deliverer, 
who  conquers  the  power  of  darkness  and  brings  the  spring,  are 
interwoven. 

Judges  i.  l6;  see  p.  98,  n.  1.  Judges  i.  27,  comp.  v.  19, 
Taanah  ;  see  p.  342,  i.  ff. 

Judges  iii.  7  ff. :  Othniel  arises  by  the  call  of  Yahveh  as 
"deliverer"'''  (i'"'2J'iD)  from  the  eight  years'  tyranny  of  the  king 
of  Aram  Naharaim.-  After  that  the  land  had  peace  for  forty 
years.^ 

Like  all  the  following  figures  of  the  judges,  Othniel  is  repre- 
sented  as  a  deliverer :  "  Yahveh  raised  up  shophetim,  which 
delivered  Israel  out  of  the  band  of  those  that  spoiled  them," 
Judges  ii.  16 — that  is  the  theme  of  all  the  stories.  The 
deliverers  are  endowed  with  certain  motifs,  which  are  taken 
from  the  properties  of  the  Oriental  myth.  The  motifs  are 
interwoven  with  names  and  numbers,  in  which  often  coincidence 
may  have  come  to  their  aid ;  above  all,  they  are  linked  to 
features  proper  to  the  populär  traditions.     In  every  case  there 

'  Compare  Ihe  laments  in  Hosea  ix.  lo;  x.  I  ;  xi.  i  f.  ;  xiii.  5  f. 

-  Syria,  called  afler  later  circunistances  of  populaiiun,  country  of  the  Aiauijeans. 
The  river  is  ihe  Euphrates.  The  district  is  called  in  Egyptian  Naharna.  See 
K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  28  f. 

^  Judges  iii.  30  says  eighty  years  (2  x  40) ;  viii.  28  says  forty  years  ;  xiii.  i  has 
the  contrary  idea,  forty  years'  faniine  :  see  upon  this  pp.  94,  i.  ;  100,  i. 


OTHNIEL— EHUD  168 

vvould  be  a  basis  of  historical  fact,  but  how  far  the  detail  is 
historic  cannot  be  decided. 

In  the  fundamental  deduetions  (pp.  80,  i.  fF.)  upon  the  relation  oi 
the  mythological  motifs  to  historical  faets,  the  particularly  difficult 
period  before  the  kings  is  for  the  time  being  left  out  of  considera- 
tion.  Here  in  isolated  cases  :  sub  iiidice  lis.  And  the  interpreter 
feels  with  Plutarch,^  who  writes  with  delicate  humour  in  the 
Theseus,   to  his  friend  Sossius  Senecio  : 

'^  It  is  indeed  to  be  wished  that  the  mythological  might^  with 
the  help  of  cviticism,  be  entirely  eliminated^  and  might  take  the 
form  of  history.  If,  however,  it  wars  against  credibility,  and  cannot 
at  all  be  reconciled  with  probability/-  1  hope  that  the  readers  will 
be  reasonabie  enough  to  be  indulgent  to  the  stoiy  of  such  remote 
occurrences." 

Judges  iii.  12  fF. :  Ehud  appears  as  Deliverer  (iii.  1-5),  and  slays 
the  Moabite  tvrant  Eglon. 

;;i  Ehud  is  left-handed.  He  is  a  Benjamite  (see  Budde  upon 
this  passage).  In  Judges  xx.  l6  the  seven  hundved  Benjamites  who 
carry  out  the  i-ape  of  the  women  (see  p.  81)  are  left-handed.  This 
motif  belongs  to  the  dragon-combat  (comp.  Stucken,  Astralmythen, 
'■256^  and  Winckler,  Gesch.  Is?:,  ii.  121  f.),  who  link  to  this  the  left- 
handed  Ziu-Tyr,  who  thrust  his  right  band  in  the  throat  of  the  wolf 
Fenri,  and  the  left-handed  Mucius  Scsevola^  who  laid  his  right 
band  in  the  fire  in  order  to  save  the  city.  Possibly  also  his  name 
hints  an  astral-mythological  motif;  for  A-hu-ud  is  in  II.  R.  47, 
22c  a  Pseudonym  for  Jupiter  (Gudbir),  or  Mercury  (see  p.  18,  i.). 
Ehud  carries  in  his  left  band  the  mythical  two-edged  sword  (see 
p.  236,  i.),  with  which  he  kills  the  tyrant.  Winckler  now  no  longer 
holds  (contrary  to  his  opinion  in  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  121  f )  that  the 
motifs  take  awav  from  the  historic  probability  of  the  figure  of 
Ehud,  t^ 

Judges  iii.  31  :  Shamgar,  whose  history  was  suppressed,  doubt- 
less  with  very  good  reasoii  (compare  the  chnracteristics  of  his 
time,  Judges  v.  6  ff.),  is  superfluous  in  the  scheme  of  twelve ;  see 
p.  161.     Upon  the  ox-goad,  see  p.  171. 

Judges  iv.  1  ff.  :  Deborah"'  destroys  the  Canaanite  foe.  A 
celestial  combat  and  victory  are  described  as  prototype  of  the 
terrestrial  victory. 

^  Plutarch  wa.s  a  priest  of  Apollo  and  knevv  the  meaning  of  the  mythological 
motifs  very  well. 

■^  Compare  the  e.xamples  p.  171,  n.  3. 
^  Compare  pp.  161  and  171. 


164  THE   BOOK   OF  JUDGES 

Motifs  of  the  Dragon  combat  are  hidden  in  the  mysterious 
n2'p^',  Judges  iv.  1  8,  with  which  Deborah  Covers  Sisera ;  it  recalls 
the  hunting  net  of  Mavduk-Orion  for  entangling  Tiamat.  The  net 
motif  is  still  clearer  in  the  story  of  Judith,  Judith  xiii.  9:,  ^5,  and 
above  all  in  xvi.  20,  Avhere  the  apparently  harmless  fly-net  was 
hung  up  as  a  sacrificial  offering ;  this  is  a  good  example  of  the 
linking  of  simple  events  with  mythological  motifs.  A  Dragon- 
combat  motif  lies  furthev  in  the  imusual  weapon,  the  hammer, 
with  which  Deborah  breaks  Sisera's  head  whilst  he  drinks  ^ 
(compare  the  name  of  the  Deliverer  Judas  Maccabgeus,  whose 
sumame  also  gives  the  hammer  as  weapon  of  the  hero ;  see  fig. 
159,  the  hammer  in  the  Dragon  combat,  and  compare  the  Teshup- 
Marduk  hammer,  p.  124,  i.).  The  other  weapon  of  the  Dragon-slayer 
is  lightning ;  Barak,  who  is  named  in  the  history  as  the  captain  of 
the  army  against  Sisera,  and  who  probably  was  the  actual  "judge" 
ofthat  time,  is  called  "the  lightning"  (Phcenician  barkas ;  compare 
the  surname  of  the  Carthaginian  hero  Hamilcar  Barca)."^ 

Judges  V.  4 ;  see  p.  2,  n.  1. 

Judges  V.  20  :  "  The  stars  fought  from  heaven  ;  the  people  of 
Sisera  fought  from  their  stations.'''' 

The  meaning  should  probably  be  taken  thus,  with  Winckler, 
Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  l3l.  It  means  the  opponents  of  Yahveh.  As 
Tiamat  with  her  helpers,  the  zodiacal  signs  of  the  earlier  aeons 
(p.  146,  i.,  n.  1),  fought  against  Marduk,  so  here  the  stars  in  their 
stations  (to  be  read  ni'pTD,  see  upon  this  pp.  248,  260),  i.e.  in  the 
same  way  the  zodiacal  signs  appear  upon  the  side  of  the  tyi'ant 
Sisera.  For  the  further  description  of  the  fight  and  the  victory  of 
Yahveh  as  in  Isa.  xxiv.  21  ff.,  see  pp.  195,  i.,  271. 

Judges  V.  28,  30,  in  the  ancient  song  of  the  hero,  in  the  harem 
of  Sisera's  ancestral  palace,  gives  a  scene  most  interesting  from 
the  point  of  the  history  of  civilisation.  The  verses  are  worthy 
of  the  Tliousand  ajid  One  Nights. 

Judges  vi.  11-viii.  35. :  Gideon^  (Jerubba'al)  from  Ophrah  in 
Manasseh. 

^  The  introductory  story,  related  to  the  story  of  the  call  to 
Samson  (Judges  xiii.  2  ff.),  contains  some  of  the  motifs  which  we 
meet   in    the   Ancient-Oriental  myth   of  the  call  to  the  king  and 

'  See  Budde  upon  this  passage. 

^  Upon  Maccabseus  and  Barca,  see  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  82;  and  Kampf  um 
Babel  und  Bibel,  4th  ed. ,  32. 

'  Gideon  and  Jerubba'al  were  originaliy  probabiy  Izvo  "judges,"  possibly 
identified  for  the  sake  of  the  schenie  of  tvvelve.  The  dififerentiation  of  theni  in 
the  sources  (see  chiefly  Budde  in  Ihe  Commentary)  does  not  come  into  considera- 
tion  in  the  questions  which  interest  us  here. 


GIDEON  165 

Deliverer.  Gideon  of  humble  birth^  vi.  15  (comp.  p.  91)-  ^^  ^^ 
chosen  of  God  and  is  called  as  "brave  warrior,"  whom  God  Himself 
will  lead  to  the  battle  (comp.  vii.  18,  "  hither  sword  of  Yahveh  and 
of  Gideon").  The  angel  of  Yahveh  linds  him  on  the  threshing- 
floor  of  vvheatj  vi.  11,  comp.  37  (variant  lipon  the  call  from  the 
plougli,  as  in  the  case  of  Saul  and  Elisha,  pp.  177,  235;  for  the 
meaning,  comp.  p.  59,  i.).  ^: 

Judges  vi.  24  (altar  of  Yahveh-Shalem) ;  see  p.  67. 

Judges  vi.  25  ff.  offers  an  example  of  the  change  of  a  heathen 
place  of  worship  in  Canaan  into  a  place  of  worship  of  Yahveh.^ 
Gideon  throws  down  the  altar  of  Baal  standing  upon  the  hill 
and  cuts  dow  n  the  ushera  standing  by  it  (see  below),  builds  an 
altar  to  Yahveh,  and  offers  upon  it  a  seven-year-old  bullock 
Gideon^s  father  cahns  the  wrath  of  the  people :  "  If  Baal  be  a 
God,  let  him  fight  for  himself."'  In  religious  history  the  event 
niay  be  compared  with  the  cutting  down  of  the  oak  of  Wotan 
at  Geismar  by  St  Boniface  (Winfrid).  The  heathen  looked  for 
the  Intervention  of  Wotan.  A  Lammas  chapel  was  built  with 
the  wood  of  the  oak.  The  behaviour  of  the  people  in  regard  to 
this  action  by  Gideon  is  an  additional  Illustration  of  the  fact 
that  the  populär  religion  was  thoroughly  heathen.- 

Pure  Yahveh  religion,  in  accordance  with  that  of  the  Mosaic 
age,  was  probably  to  be  found  with  the  leading  spirits  of  a  verv 
small  circle,  from  amongst  whom  the  nabf  came  who  encouraged 
Gideon.  The  Yahveh  religion  of  Gideon,  as  told  us  by  one  of 
the  authorities,  shows  a  robust  form  ;  it  offers  an  example  of 
the  populär  Yahveh  religion  (p.  16).  The  sacrifice  {ininha) 
signifies  to  him  an  actual  food  for  the  divinity,  Judges  vi.  18  ff. ; 
the  vision  of  the  angel  of  Yahveh,  whose  magic  staff  sets  fire  to 
the  offering  and  who  seems  to  have  ascended  in  the  sacrificial 
flame,  meant  death.  Yahveh  appears  as  wrathful  God  (vi.  39). 
Gideon   in  a  spirit   of  syncretism   names  the  altar  of  Yahveh 

'  The  idea  that  the  story  was  composed  somewhat  in  the  sense  of  a  Deutero- 
nomical  reform,  in  order  to  explain  the  name  Jcrubba'al,  we  hold  to  be  excluded. 
The  "colouring  of  time  and  locality"  is  genuine.  See  Budde,  p.  56,  who 
ascribes  the  passage  to  the  Elohist  (but  why  "no  early  Stratum"?). 

^  The  Story  of  the  making  of  an  "ephod"  by  Jerubba'al  probably  belongs  to 
some  other  person.  It  is  treating  of  a  purely  heathen  effigy  {ba'al  in  the  name  of 
the  hero  shows  it) :  the  present  text  seems  to  modify  the  fact,  as  though  it  treated 
of  an  eftigy  of  Yahveh. 


166  THE   BOOK   OF  JUDGES 

Yahveh-Shalem  (compare  with  this  pp.  26  ff.,  67) ;  the  inquiry 
of  the  Oracle,  of  which  vi.  36  ff.  gives  a  notable  example  (also 
vi.  32  probablv  presuppose.s  the  oracle),  lay.s  great  value  oii 
miracles.^ 

Judges  vi.  28 :  The  ashera  hewn  down  by  Gideon  niay  be 
thought  of  as  a  wooden  iniage  like  the  marble  statue  repro- 
duced  fig.  41  :  a  post  with  the  head  of  the  goddess  at  the 
Upper  end. 

Judges  vii  2  ff. :  Fitness  to  serve  in  the  army  (vi.  35)  is 
established  by  a  curious  action.  The  story  is  laid  in  Sichern, 
like  the  exodus  of  Abraham.  As  with  the  ]ianiklm  (p.  27)  of 
Abraham,  it  i.s  treating  here  of  a  selected  band  {zeriifhn,  Judges 
vii.  4).'  The  "  lapping  water  like  a  dog"  is  analogous  to  a  not 
clearly  understood  religious  custom  at  the  sacred  waters  of 
Sichem,  a  secret  cult,  by  which  those  were  known  who  would 
be  worthy  fellow-warriors  with  the  Deliverer  and  Dragon-slayer 
Gideon. 

^i^  Motifs  of  the  myth,  which  conceives  the  combats  as  phenomena 
of  the  cycle,  lie  in  Judges  viii.  14,  where  77,  i.e.  72  +  5  (cycle  =  27, 
in  addition  five  epagomenoe)  people  of  Succoth  are  doomed  to  destruc- 
tion.  The  number  of  the  sons  of  Gideon  has  the  same  meaning  :  70 
(Judges  viii.  öO)  +  2  (Abimelech  and  Jotham)  ;  compare  witli  the 
seventy  sons  of  Ahab,  2  Kings  x.  1  and  7. 

The  division  of  the  army  into  three  parts,  Judges  vii.  \i5,  comp, 
ix.  43,  on  Abimelech,  was  spoken  of  at  p.  26  as  a  motif  of  the  moon 
combat.  Moon  motifs  are  futher  shown  in  the  dveam  of  the  cake 
of  barley  bread  rolling  into  the  enemy's  camp  (interpreted  as  "  the 
sword  of  Gideon  ").  It  represents  the  moon.  In  war  legends  lunar 
phenomena  often  bring  confusion  into  the  camp  (examples  in  the 
Oriental  legends  by  Mücke,  Vom  Euphrat  zum  Tiber,  \).  ^Q).  The 
trumpet  blasts  and  noise  of  breaking  pitchers,  vii.  l6  ff.,  bring  tlie 
realisation  of  the  dream  on  the  following  niglit.  That  also  is  a 
motif  of  moon  combat  (see  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  139).  The  noise 
and  the  blasts  may  be  considered  like  the  blowing  down  of  the 
walls  of  Jericho,  see  pp.  156  f.  The  meaning  is  :  the  Dragon,  who 
is  seen  in  lunar  eclipse  or  in  the  three  days'  dark  moon,  is  driven 
away  by  noise  and  trumpet  blasts.     In  the  stories  of  war  the  enemy 

^  The  Position  of  the  story  in  the  leligion  of  Israel  must  be  considered  somewhat 
like  the  Roman  legend  of  Liberius  and  Johannes,  who,  according  to  a  siniul- 
taneous  dream,  were  to  build  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore  on  the  spot  where, 
on  the  morning  of  the  4th  August  352,  they  found  newly  fallen  snow. 

-  Thus,  with  Erbt,  Die  Hebräer,  76 ;  compare  previously  Stucken,  Astral- 
viythen,  137. 


SWORD   OF   GIDEON  167 

is  the  moon-dragon.     The  sword  of  Gideon  is   like  the   sickle   of 
Yahveh  (Isa.  xxvii.  l,  p.  194,  i.),  the  conquering  new  moon.  ;{< 
Judges  vii.  19  (night  watches) ;  see  p.  105. 

Juciges  viii.  18-21;  comp.  2  Sam.  xxi.  1-14:  Here  revenge 
for  blood  is  presupposed,  which  is  only  overcome  when  political 
power  protects  property,  so  that  its  suppression  is  therefore  less 
a  matter  of  moral  than  of  social  progress  ^  The  civil  life  of  the 
Isi'aelites  was  religiously  ordered  by  the  fundamental  maxim 
that  God  is  the  supreme  avenger  of  blood  (Ps.  ix.  13 ;  comp. 
Gen.  ix.  5  f. ;  Lev.  xxiv.  IT ;  Numb.  xxxv.  18  ff.).  It  is  on 
this  account  we  find  here  no  definite  vengeance  for  blood.  In 
any  ca^e  it  is  limited  by  the  right  of  sanctnary  ;  see  above,  p.  111. 
It  does  not  seem  to  us  that  vengeance  for  blood  is  presupposed 
in  Gen.  xxvii.  45.  In  the  laws  of  Hammurabi  punishment  is 
politically  organised  under  the  clearest  application  of  the  iwi 
taIiom.<i.  As  remnants  of  blood  revenge  \ve  find  here  the 
remarkable  regulations  according  to  which,  under  certain  circum- 
stances,  the  act  is  atoned  for  by  a  member  of  the  family  as 
nearly  as  possible  equal  in  value  (son  or  daughter) ;  compare  with 
this  p.  111. 

Vengeance  for  blood  comes,  as  the  kabbala  (Gen.  iv.  10)  says, 
from  tiie  idea  that  the  blood  of  the  slain  rises  up,  so  long  as  he  does 
not  rest  under  the  earth,  particularly  when  the  murderer  comes 
near ;  compare  the  populär  idea  according  to  which  the  wounds 
bleed  again  (Hagen  by  the  body  of  Siegfried)  and  the  sjnrit  of  the 
slain  cannot  rest  tili  the  murderer  is  brought  to  justice  (Goel).  For 
this  reason  also,  according  to  the  Talmud,  he  is  to  be  buried  on  the 
spot  of  the  deed  in  his  clothes  Avith  the  bloodstains  "  for  the  sake 
of  vengeance." 

Judges  viii.  21  :  Moon  aniulets  on  the  necks  of  the  cameis ; 
see  2  Kings  xxiii.  5  and  fig.  36.  Also  in  Canaan  we  find 
signs  of  an  addiction  to  Ornaments  in  ancient  times.  In  a 
quite  poor  house  Sellin  found  ten  Ornaments  by  the  body  of  a 
woman. 

Judges  ix.  5  :  For  seventy  shekels  out  of  the  temple  of  Baal- 
berith  in  Shechem  Abimelech  hires  a  Company  and  murders  the 
seventy  sons  of  Jerubba'al  upon  one  (sacrificial)  stone.  The 
slaughter  bears  a  ritualistic  character,  but  cannot  be  regarded 

^  See  p.  III,  n.  2. 


168  THE   BOOK   OF   JUDGES 

as  human  sacrifice,  but  may  be  considered  as  something  like  the 

record  of  Assurbanipal,  nientioned  p.   141,  according  to  which 

people  were  slain  as  ofFerings  to  the  dead. 

Judges  ix.    7   ff.  :     The    escaped    Jotham    teils   the    men    of 

Shechem  the  fable  of  the  trees,  who  would  choose  themselves  a 

king.     Abimelech   is    king   (see  p.    153),   not   "judge.""      The 

fable  is  of  populär  origin.^     It  is  also  common  to    the    entire 

East.     In  the  Babylonian  epic  poems  of  the  hero  Ninib,'  K  ISS,"* 

it  is  said  : 

He  climbed  a  mountain  and  sowed  seed  far  and  wide. 
With  one  voice  the  plants  acclaimed  his  name  as  king, 
In  their  midst  like  a  great  wild  bull,  he  raised  his  hovns.- 

Judges  ix.  13  :  Wine,  which  cheereth  God  and  man.  This  cannot 
be  understood  to  mean  the  drink-offering  (Budde,  am.),  but  the 
mythological  conception  of  the  banquet  of  the  gods,  as  in  the  epic 
Enuma  elish  ;  see  p.  215,  i. 

Judges  ix.  45  :  He  beat  down  the  city  and  sowed  it  with  salt 
(sulphur.^)  ;  see  p.  42.     Judges  ix.  46  (El-berith)  ;  see  p.  29. 

Judges  xi.  30  ff. :  The  sacrifice  of  Jephthah's  daughter. 
The  present  text  veils  the  fact  in  the  tradition,  according  to 
which  it  treats  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  maiden.  The  Rabbinical 
explanation  ^  does  not  hesitate  to  recognise  the  fact.  It  places 
the  sacrifice  together  with  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  and  even  com- 
pares  the  sacrifice  of  the  son  of  the  heathen  king,  2  Kings  iii.  27." 

^'  The  form  of  the  sacrifice  may  be  understood  by  the  Tammuz- 
Ishtar  cult.  For  two  months  Jephthah's  daughter  mourns  upon 
the  mountains  with  her  companions  over  her  "  death  in  maiden- 
hood."  That  is  a  double  month,  corresponding  to  one  of  the  six 
seasons  of  the  year  in  the  pre  Islamic  calendar.'  The  religious 
custom  which  ordained  the  yearly  festival  of  four  days  as  a  memorial 
of  Jephthah's  daughter  (xi.  39  f.)  sees  in  the  ofFering  the  heavenly 

^  See  Budde,  Richter,  upon  this  passage.  Another  fable  is  told  in  2  Kings 
xiv.  9. 

-  He  is  called  "Seed,  I  know  not  my  father'';  see  upon  the  motif,  pp.  2S, 
91  ff. 

'  Hroszny  in  M.  V.A.G.,  1903,  198  ff. 

■*  It  seems  as  though  here  also  the  plants  should  be  regarded  as  men.  The 
connection  is  obscure. 

'  Comp   Thaannit,  3''. 

^  It  should  then  be  concluded  from  Jer.  xix.  5  that  God  did  not  accept  the 
sacrifice. 

"  P.  65,  i.  ;  compare  the  six  stages  of  age  in  the  synibolism  of  our  calendar. 


SAMSON  169 

virgin  herseif,  who  sinks  into  the  realm  of  death  (oi*  daily  as  evening 
star,  comp.  p.  121,  i.),  but  also  reascends  (see  p.  121,  i.). 

Epiphanius,  Adv.  hxres.,  iii.  2,  1055  (ed.  Patavius)  gives  emphatic 
evideuce  of  the  worship  of  Jephthah's  daughter  as  Core  (  =  Ishtar) 
amongst  the  Samaritans  :  "  In  Shechem,  the  present  Neapolis,  the 
inhabitants  sacrifice  to  the  name  of  Core,,  clearly  in  connection  with 
the  daughter  of  Jephthah,  who  was  once  dedicated  as  a  sacrifice  to 
the  divmity."  The  four  days  explain  themselves  as  3  +  1:  three 
days'  mourning,  and  on  the  fourth  day  the  festival  of  joy  in  the 
"  resurrection  "  ;  see  p.  37,  i.^  fig.  15,  and  pp.  94,  i.  ff.  ^ 

Judges  xü.  5  f.  :  Shibboleth  as  countersign. 

This  treats  chiefly  of  the  pronunciation  of  the  sibilant  as  counter- 
sign, but  possibly  the  word  is  not  chosen  arbitrarily,  but  is  to  be 
explained  out  of  the  Yahveh  populär  religion,  which  niingled 
heathen  superstitions  with  the  worship  of  Yahveh.  It  is  possible 
that  by  shibboleth,  "the  ears,"  Ishtar  may  be  designated,  the 
heavenly  virgin  with  the  ears  of  corn  whose  populär  cult  is  attested 
by  the  above  account  of  the  festival  of  the  sacrifice  of  Jephthah's 
daughter. 

Judges  xii.  9  (thirty  sons  and  thirty  daughters)  ;  see  p.  170. 

Judges  xiii.  ff". :  Samson.  In  the  stories  of  Samson  also  it  is 
certain  that  a  speciallj  notable  figure  of  the  period  before  the 
kings  is  at  the  root  of  the  Israelite  tradition.  The  stories  of 
this  deliverer  from  the  Philistine  oppression  are  especially  richly 
endowed  with  niotifs  from  the  Oriental  expectation  of  the 
Deliverer.^ 

1 .  The  father  is  called  Manoah  (motif  name  of  the  Deliverer,  see 
pp.  265,  i.  ;  271,  i.).  The  wife  was  barren  ('^7'?^?  motif  word,  which 
is  only  used  in  connection  with  the  expectation  of  the  Deliverer ; 
see  pp.  20,  n.  5  ;  and  51,  n.  2). 

2.  The  miraculous  birth  from  the  barren  mother  is  announced  by  a 
divine  message.  The  new-born  is  to  be  from  his  mother's  womb  a 
Nnzarite,  and  as  such  he  is  to  be  a  Deliverer  (y^^'li^,  motif  word)  of 
Israel. 

3.  The  astral-mythological  motifs  which  are  the  mark  of  the 
Deliverer  may  be  taken  from  solar  or  lunar  cycle,  or  they  may  be 
Tammuz-Ishtar  motifs  (cycle),  see  p.  86,  i.  In  this  story  solar  motifs 
are  emphasised.  Shimshon  is  a  word  of  endearment,  and  means 
"little  sun."2 

4.  Samson    marries    a    Philistine    vvoman,    Judges    xiv.      At    the 

^  The  motifs  are  probably  originally  moon-motifs,  paitly  changed  in  the 
Canaanite  sphei-e  into  sun-motifs,  see  Schultz  in  Or.  Li/.  Ztg.,   October  1910. 

^  The  place  Zor'a,  given  as  the  birthplace,  is  in  the  neighbourhood  nf  Beth- 
Shemesh.  There  the  sun  myths  were  well  known.  According  to  Winckler, 
/\.B.,  V.  29S,  it  is  in  the  Zarlja  of  the  Amarna  Letters. 


170  THE    BOOK   OF  JUDGES 

mamage,^  which  lasted  seven  days  (like  the  marriage  of  Jacob  and 
Leah.  see  Gen.  xxix.  27),  Samson  has  thirty  companions,  and 
promises  to  the  one  who  solves  the  riddle  thirty  under  garnients 
and  thirty  festal  garments  :  he  slays  thirty  men  in  Ashkelon  and 
takes  their  garments  to  pay  his  debt.  In  the  cycle,  which  the  life 
of  the  hero  reflects,  the  wedding  point  is  the  point  of  the 
sunimer  solstice.  To  this  belongs  the  motif  of  guessing  the 
riddle.'-     The  wedding  riddle  of  Samson  (Judges  xiv.  l^)  run:« : 

■'•  Out  of  the  eater  came  forth  meat, 
And  out  of  the  strong  came  forth  sweetness." 

The  points  fit  just  as  Uttle  as  the  fable  in  Judges  ix.  7  tf.  It  hat, 
been  taken  from  the  populär  anecdotes,  for  the  sake  of  the  motifs^ 


Fig.  i6i.—  ;.-slayer.     (Relief  from  Nineveh.) 

aiid  interpohited.  The  Statement  that  they  guessed  vainly  for  three 
days  and  on  the  fourth  day  gave  the  answer(3  +  l,  see  p.  87,  i.) 
hints  that  the  story  is  treating  of  a  motif  of  the  sun-moon  combat, 
which  nccording  to  xiv.  5  ff.  must  lie  at  the  root  of  the  riddle.  A 
fight  witli  a  lion  gains  him  the  love  of  the  maiden.  By  the  help  of 
the  spirit  of  Yahveh  he  slew  him.^  In  the  carcase  of  the  lion  he 
then  finds  honey.  The  Hon  is  representative  of  the  celestial  North 
Point  (see  p.  23,  i.)  in  the  zodiac,  of  the  Solstitial  point.  Slaying  the 
Mon  means  winning  the  rulership  of  the  world  ;  the  honey  signifies 
the  same.     "Milk  and  honey"  is  one  of  the  typical  expressions  for 

'  In  Timnath,  where  the  Judah-Tamar  story  is  also  laid,  Gen.  xxxviii.  13  ft'. 
Ishtar  motif  here  also. 

^  Riddle  of  the  Sphinx,  riddle  in  the  Adonis  cult.  Upon  riddles  comp.  Prov. 
vi.  16-19,  '''^''-  4>  15  ■>  Ecclesiasticus  xxv.  i  f. 

■''  The  Deliverer  is  lion-slayer.  This  recurs  in  the  story  of  David.  Assur- 
banipal  had  himself  represented  in  his  palace  as  a  hero,  on  foot,  rending  a  lion  ; 
see  fig.  161.     Gilgamesh  is  lion-slayer  ;  see  p.  290,  i.,  fig.  78  and  ff. 


SAMSON  171 

the  recapitulation  ot  the  complete  cosmos  (like  vine  and  fig  tree, 
see  p.  272,  i.,  n.  3  ;  one  represents  the  upper,  the  other  the  under  half 
of  the  Avorld).^  The  s-\vami  of  bees  also  belongs  to  the  chain  of 
motifs.  It  should  be  noted  that  Deborah^  the  Deliverer,  who  killed 
the  tyrant,  is  calied  "bee"  (motif  iiame  like  Samson  ?).  In  any 
case  the  event,  and  the  riddle  connected  with  it,  chavacterise 
Samson  as  tyrant  expellei-  and  lord  of  the  world.- 

5.  The  story  of  Samson's  vengeance  upon  the  Philistines,  Judges 
XV.  1  ff.,  may  be  held  to  be  an  example  of  the  deeds  of  the  deliver- 
ing  sun-man.     We  only  partly  understand  the  motifs. 

Three  hundred  captured  foxes  ^  are  driven  two  by  two  with 
burning  brands  tied  to  them  into  the  standing  corn  in  the  fields  of 
the  Philistines.  Is  the  story  to  be  placed  in  the  same  category 
with  the  motif  of  the  burning  fields  in  the  story  of  Absalom,  2  Sam. 
xiv.  30  f.,  which  is  altogether  unintelligible  .-^  The  burning  of  the 
woman  together  with  her  father  belongs  to  it.  It  appears  to  us 
like  a  fire-flood  motif.  In  the  story  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha,  and 
in  its  counterpart,  Judges  xix.  f.  (see  pp.  40  ff.),  the  motif  of  violated 
hospitality  is  also  prominent,  and  the  motif  of  sexual  violence,  as 
here,  where  Samson  is  denied  admission,  and  his  Avife  is  given  up  to 
thirty  companions. 

The  meaning  then  might  be  :  Samson  brings  the  fire-flood,  the 
judgment  of  destruction,  upon  the  Philistines.  Three  hundred 
(30  X  10)  red  foxes  with  fire-brands  would  then  show  the  summer 
solstice  of  the  universe. 

Ovid,  Fasfi,  ^•i.  6Si  ff.  (iSth  and  igth  April),  proves  that  it  is  treating  of  a 
well-known  motif:  foxes  with  burning  brands  upon  their  backs  were  driven 
through  the  fields,  burning  the  green  corn.  Ovid  remarks  upon  it  that  at  the 
Feast  of  Ceres  foxes  were  burnt.  The  Dog-star  was  represented  as  fox,  and 
Rübigo,  to  vvhom  is  attributed  the  burning  of  the  corn  (Ovid,  Fasfi,  iv.  911  ff.), 
is  the  Dog-star. 

6.  The  heroic  deed  at  Lehi^  Judges  xv.  8  tf.  Samson  is  hidden 
in  tlie  cave.  Three  thousand  men  of  Jiidah  (motif  number)  come  : 
they  bind  him  Avith  two  new  cords  and  bring  him  out  of  the  cave 
to  the  top  of  the  rock.  He  rends  the  cords  and  slays  with  the 
jaw-bone  of  an  ass  one  thousand  men.  His  thirst  is  then  quenched 
by  a  miraculous  drink  out  of  the  cloven  jaw-bone,  "  so  that  his 
spirit  of  iife  came  again  and  he  revived."  The  jaw-bone  of  the 
ass  is  counterpart  to  the  ox  stafF  with  which  Shamgar,  Judges  iii.  31, 
slew   six   hundred    Philistines   "and    delivered    Israel."       There    is 

"^  Samson  eats  honey.  Comp.  Isa.  vii.  15  (see  upon  the  passage),  motif  of  the 
expected  Deliverer  :    "  milk  and  honey  shall  he  eat. ' 

^  Interpreted  otherwise  by  Winckler  in  O.L.Z.,  pr.  490.  The  motifs  may  well 
bear  several  meanings. 

^  It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  the  chronicler  did  not  wish  such  a  feat  of  hunting 
to  be  taken  as  historic.  In  the  same  way  no  one  would  seriously  contend  that 
bees,  whose  sense  of  smell  is  extremely  sensitive,  would  build  in  the  carcase  of  an 
animal. 


172  THE    BOOK    OF   JUDGES 

always  a  motif  of  the  Deliverer  in  the  weapon.^  The  miraculous 
water  is  counterpart  to  the  honey  after  the  lion  combat,  xiv.  9- 
In  both  cases  it  is  treating  of  the  refreshment  of  the  hero  after 
the  battle.- 

7.  Samson  with  the  harlot  in  Gaza,  x\i.  1  H'.  At  midnight  he 
takes  the  two  doors  of  the  gate  of  the  city  and  carries  theni  to  the 
top  of  the  hill.  Here  also  is  a  motif  of  the  conqiieror  of  the  tyrant. 
The  tradition,  according  to  Avhich  early  mediaj\  al  pictures  represent 
the  scene  as  a  counterpart  to  the  Gohath  combat,  recognised  this 
motif.  The  two  doors  signify  the  sanie  thing  as  the  two  pillars  of 
the  Temple  in  Ashdod.  The  hero  as  bringer  of  a  new  aeon  lifts 
the  World  ruled  by  the  tyrant  from  its  angles  (the  two  gates  aiid 
the  pillars  correspond  to  east  and  west  point  of  the  world,  like 
Jachim  and  ßoaz). 

8.  Samson  and  Delilah,  xvi.  4-  üV^  The  superhuman  strength  of 
the  hero  rends  seven  fresh  withes  that  should  bind  him.  In  the 
same  way  he  rends  new  ropes  with  which  no  work  has  ever  been 
done  ;  he  tears  the  weaving  pin,  to  which  his  seven  locks  are  bound, 
out  of  the  earth.  But  when  the  seven  locks  are  cut  from  his  hair, 
he  grows  weaker  and  weaker.  The  Philistines  put  out  his  eyes 
and  throw  him  into  ])rison. 

The  Deliverer  descending  into  the  Underworld,  before  the  new 
age  dawns^  shows  here  particularly  clear  sun  motifs.  Hair  is 
analogous  to  rays  of  the  sun  (p.  5 1 ).  Shorn  hair  and  blindness 
and  imprisonment  (p.  65)  characterise  the  winter  sun,  the  dark 
half  of  the  cycle.  At  the  festival  (sacrificial  feast  of  Dagon, 
probably  New  Year's  festival,  note  the  motif  of  drunkenness,  xvi. 
25)  he  is  brought  out  of  prison.  He  takes  the  two  pillars  of  the 
Temple,  "  one  in  his  right  hand,  the  other  in  his  left  hand,"  and  the 
Temple  collapses.  The  hostile  world  is  destroyed.  Samson  is 
buried  in  the  grave  of  Manoah  (see  above^.  p.  l69).  VV'e  must  Sup- 
plement :   but  he  will  rise  again  and  bring  the  new  age. 

The  relationship  of  this  story  to  that  of  Gilgamesh,  the  hero 
with  seven  locks,  who  kills  the  lion  (see  fig.   78  ff.)  and  comes  to 

'  Ox  and  ass  represent  the  two  halves  of  the  world  or  of  the  cycle  ;  so,  for 
example,  the  opposite  of  the  Osiris-Marduk  bull  is  the  ass-headed  Typhon.  Ox 
and  ass  at  the  crib  of  the  Deliverer  in  the  Christian  legend  are  not  sufticienlly 
explicable  by  Isa.  i.  3.  The  ass  motif  in  the  fragmentary  stories  of  the  judges, 
who  are  invariably  held  as  deliverers,  is  very  stiiking.  It  is  said  of  Abdon, 
Judges  xii.  13  ff.  :  he  had  forty  sons  and  thirty  nephews,  who  rode  upon  seventy 
ass  colts.  Jair,  Judges  x.  3  ff ,  had  thirty  sons,  who  rode  upon  thirty  ass  colts  and 
possessed  thirty  eitles. 

2  For  example,  in  the  celebrated  picture  at  the  "Gasthof  Stern"  in  Ötz  in  the 
Tyrol.  which  was  reiiovated\n  the  fifteenth  Century. 

^  The  question  whelher  the  later  insertion  in  Judges  xv.  20  shows  that  there 
was  another  authority  for  this  and  the  previous  story  is  of  no  consequence.  The 
stories  collectively  all  originate  from  one  source  of  tradition  and  all  have  one  aim  : 
to  characterise  Samson  as  the  type  of  the  expected  Deliverer. 


SAMSON  173 

misery  thvough  Ishtar,  has  been  already  emphasised  in  Izdiibar- 
Nimrod  (1891),  p.  70.  The  relationship  lies  in  the  point  that  both 
are  types  of  the  Deliverer,  and  endowed  with  sun  motifs.  Heracles 
also  is  in  this  sense  a  related  figure.^  Eusebius,.  very  justifiably, 
held  Heracles  to  be  a  "heathen  imitation  of  Sanison."  It  is  very 
probable  that  our  Book  of  Judges  drew  from  a  tradition  which 
recorded  twelve  deeds  by  Samson. 

Judges  xxi.  7  ff.  (rape  of  the  niaidens  in  Shiloh) ;  see  p.  81. 

^  In  Izdubar-Niinrod,  p.  70,  in  Opposition  to  the  jiidgment  of  Wilamowitz- 
Möllendorff  (^/^r;))/'^^,  Herakles),  that  "  it  is  fruitless  to  seek  for  Heracles  in  the 
Ancient-Oriental  fables,"  we  have  shown  that  just  the  elements  of  the  Heracles 
myth,  which  are  looked  upon  as  primeval  elements,  coincide  with  the  Ancient- 
Oriental  myth. 


CHAPTER  XXI\ 

.sa:\iuei.,  saul,  david,  soi.omon 

Samuel 

1  S.vM.  1  ft.  :  >fc  Samuers  birth  and  calling.  The  stoiy  is  iutro- 
dueed  by  the  motif  of  the  miraculous  birth,  hke  the  stovies  of 
Samson,  Judges  xiii.  2  ff.,  and  Gideon,  Judges  vi.  11  fF.,  see  p.  l64, 
wlio  bring  the  new  age.  The  mother  is  barren  (upon  this  motif, 
wliicli  recurs  in  the  Song  ii.  5'',  see  pp.  20,  51).'  Their  son  is 
iiamed  by  an  oracle  in  Shiloh.  The  name  Shemu'el,  which,  i.  20, 
Hke  the  name  Sau!  (^fthanl),  is  interpreted  as  '^•' asked  for,''  although 
it  actually  signifies  something  eise/'  indicates  him  not  only  as  the 
asked-for  child,  but  as  tlie  longed-for  Dehverer.  The  ehild  is 
brought  to  the  sanctuary,  being  dedicated  to  God.  '•  So  long  as  he 
lives,  he  shall  be  shaiV  of  Yahveh,"  iii.  21.  "The  child  gvew  with 
Vahveh."  Sam.  iii.  4  ff.  teils  how  Yahveh  himself  ealled  him, 
iii.  19,  "and  Yahveh  was  with  him."  "He  grew  with  Yahveh." 
A  new  age  dawns  (comp.  iii.  1  with  iii.  21).  Samuel  is  therefore 
also  a  figure  of  the  Deliverer.  ^V- 

The  '■'  Song  of  Hannah  "  treats  of  the  expectation  of  the 
Deliverer.  It  is  connected  with  Samuel,  like  the  similar  songs  of 
expectation  which  are  linked  with  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist 
azid  with  the  biith  of  Jesus.  In  the  history  of  the  expectation  of 
salvation  these  songs  are  of  great  importance.  The  age  of  the 
songs  can  probably  not  be  decided.  The  revision  may  naturally 
be  newer  than  the  forms  and  the  thoughts.  The  motifs  of 
"  barrennes.s,"  ii.  .5  f,  and  of  "Yahveh,  "  who  killeth  and  maketh 
alive,  who  casts  into  the  Underworld  and  raiseth  up  again,"  ^ 
sound  ancient.  VVhen  at  the  end  it  speaks  of  the  anointed  king 
(ii.  10)  Avhü  briiigs  deliverance  in  the  name  of  Yahveh,  we  must 
declare  ourselves  in  principle    against    the    assumption    that    such 

'  Note  the  tender  passage  l  Sam.  i.  8,  which  ilkistiates  the  Status  of  the  wife. 
Elkanah  says  :  "  Am  I  not  better  to  theo  ihan  ten  sons?" 

-  Properly  speaking,  a  combination  of  cc  and  '"x,  see  A'.A.T.,  ßrd  ed.,  225; 
upon  shcüül,  "  the  examined,"  see  p.  177. 

^  To  prove  the  same  idea  as  a  picture  of  deliverance  in  the  Babylonian,  see 
pp.  206,  i.  f. 

174 


SAMUEL 


175 


words  could  only  be  thought  in  Israel  in  the  period  after  the 
kings.  The  expectation  of  the  Deliverer  might  in  the  East  in  all 
ages  be  expressed  as  an  expected  king ;  also  in  ancient  Israel  they 
understood  very  well  the  raeaning  of  the  figure  of  a  delivering 
king.  The  hörn  of  the  anointed  is  the  symbol  of  divine  power  ;  see 
p.  62,  n.  3,  comp.  fig.  88,  p.  317,  i..  and  fig.  69,  p.  220,  i. 

1  Sam.  ii.  22  (women  as  serving  in  the  Temple)  ;  see  pp.  307  i.  f. 

1  Sam.  iii.  2  ff.  ;  The  ark  of  Yahveh  in  the  'ohel  )no'ecL  as  a 
permanent  building  in  Shiloh  ;  see  p.  132. 

]  Sam.  iv.  13  (Eli  upon  a  stool  in  the  gate)  :  see  p.  115,  tig.  135. 

1  Sam.  iv.  19  (Ichabod);  see  p.  129- 


Fig.  162. — Destruction  of  idols.     Relief  from 
Khorsabad  ;  Botta,  ii.  114. 

1  Sam.  V.  1  fF. :  The  statue  of  Dagon  is  broken  in  piece.s. 
Head  and  hands  lie  upon  the  steps  of  the  pedestal  which  bore 
the  statue  of  the  god.^  The  people  may  have  looked  upon 
this  as  a  set  battle  between  Yahveh  and  Dagon.  Fig.  162- 
illustrates  the  destruction  of  an  idol.  More  detail  was  given 
upon  Dagon  and  his  cult  at  p.  159. 

'  Upon  the  niiftan,  see  Zech.  i.  9,  p.  309.  Also  i  Sam.  v.  5  treats  of  the  Steps 
of  the  adyton,  where  the  priests  might  not  go. 

"  This  plate  was  published  in  A.T.A.O.,  ist  ed.,  erroneously,  under  "human 
sacrifice,"  with  a  query  ;  comp.  p.  141. 


176  SAMUEL,  SAUL,  DAVID,  SOLOMON 

1  Sam.  V.  5  (miftan,  not  threshold) ;  see  pp.  60,  i.  ;  175, 
n.  1  ;  309. 

1  Sam.  vi.  4  fF. :  Golden  tumours  and  golden  mice  were  laid 
before  the  altar  as  an  offering.  The  tumours  probably  ^vere 
placed  there  in  effigy  for  the  purpose  of  healing  the  sickness, 
as  is  shown  by  the  well-known  Roman  Catholic  custom  of  the 
present  day,  of  dedicating  waxen  or  silver  members  of  the 
body  before  the  mii-acle-working  statue.^  The  mice  have  the 
same  meaning,  as  symbols  of  the  plague.  Ed.  Glaser  found 
a  golden  mouse,  used  as  a  dedicatory  offering,  in  South  Arabia  ; 
see  Nielsen,  Altarah'ische  Mondreligion,  p.  120. 

1  Sam.  vi.  7  ff.  (the  ark  upon  the  chariot  drawn  by  cows)  ;  see 
p.  130. 

1  Sam.  vii.  6 :  Drawing  water  and  libation  offering  before 
Yahveh,  see  p.  113.  The  custom  of  worship  -  speaks  for  the 
ao-e  of  the  "  water  drawinij "  at  the  autumn  festival  as  set 
forth  in  Joshua  vii.  37  f.,  probably  also  Isa.  xii.  3,  and  described 
in  Tractat  Succa.^ 

Saul  and  David 

1  Sam.  viii.  11  ff.  describes  an  Oriental  tyrant.  Amongst  other 
things  his  sons  were  made  to  "  run  before  his  chariots,"  literally 
trotting,  as  they  do  at  the  Selamlik  at  the  present  day.  This 
is  the  picture  we  must  conceive  in  the  case  of  Ahaz  when  he 
was  driven  before  the  triumphal  car  of  Pul  in  Damascus ;  see 
p.  217. 

1  Sam.  ix.  1  ff".  :  Saul,  son  of  Kish.^  Yahveh  anoints  him 
as  a  prince,  and  he  is  to  free  Israel.^ 

'  The  boils  belong,  according  to  VVinckler,  Gesch.  /sr.,  ii.  152,  to  the  Vahvist 
account,  who  changed  the  symbol  (mice  plague)  into  realily. 

"  The  passage  is  ascribed  to  the  Deuteronomist.  This  may  pass  in  regard  to 
the  revision.  But  probably  here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  "  boiled  flesh  for  sacrifice" 
(ii.  13  ff.),  and  of  the  women  in  the  Temple  (ii.  22),  it  is  treating  of  customs  of  the 
ancient  religion.     2  Sam.  xxiii.  16  also  gives  evidence  of  libation  to  Yahveh. 

^  See  ß.N',  T.,  75.     Fig.  136  represents  an  Assyrian  libation. 

••  The  name  in  Babylonian,  Shaulänu,  comes  in  A'.B.,  iv.  100.  Qi-i-shu  is  the 
name  in  the  Assyrian  eponym  canons  of  the  eponym  of  755  {K.B.,  i.  20,  4th  ed.). 

'  X.  I,  according  to  Sept.  (o-cocTfif  ;  Hebrew,  V'B'in) ;  see  Klostermann  upon 
the  passage. 


SAUL  177 

^  The  description  accordingly  introduces  him  with  the  motif  of  the 
Deliverei-  :  he  is  tall  and  beautiful  (ba/jfir,  ivalob,  ix.  2  ;  comp.  Gen. 
xxxix.  6  about  Joseph,  1  Sam.  xvi.  12  about  David),  the  goodhest 
man  in  Israel,  a  head  taller  than  any  other  (ix.  2  ;  x.  23).  God 
has  chosen  him,  anointed  and  destined  him  to  be  Deliverer.  The 
Casting  of  the  lot  confirms  the  divine  call.  According  to  one 
som'ce  the  chosen  one  "  searched  for  his  father's  asses."  ^  Accord- 
ing to  another  source  he  is  fetched  away  from  the  plough  to  begin 
his  work  of  deliverance  (xi.  5  ;  see  pp.  59,  i-  f-,  l64)  ~  in  battle  against 
the  Animonite  Nahash,  who  is  going  to  thrust  out  the  right  eye  of 
the  men  of  Jabesh.  The  name  (certainly  artificial)  Nahash  [i.e. 
serpent),  xi.  1,^  already  show.s  the  motif  of  the  Dragon  combat. 
After  seven  days'  respite  the  messengers  find  the  deliverer  Saul 
at  the  plough.  He  hews  the  oxen  into  twelve  pieces  and 
sends  them  as  a  menacing  call  to  arms  to  the  twelve  tribes 
(an  altogether  inappropriate  signal,  clearly  mythological).  With 
an  arnny  of  three  companies  "^  he  defeats  the  Ammonites  in  the 
morning  watch. 

Like  the  Jabesh  incident,  so  also  the  thoroughly  historical  war 
against  the  Philistines  is  astral-mythologically  endowed.  A 
"terror  from  God"  is  the  cause  of  the  confusion  which  causes  the 
enemy  to  turn  their  Aveapons  against  each  other.  It  is  the  same 
motif  as  in  Gideon's  battle,  Judges  vii.  l6  ff.  (see  p.  l66),^  and  at 
the  conquest  of  Jericho  (pp.  155  f.).  The  deliverer  Saul  bears 
moon  motifs.  Also  here  one  may  perhaps  gather  this  from  the 
name  {sha-fil,  "the  asked,"  the  moon  is  lord  of  oracles).  He  has 
three  sons,  ]  Sam.  xiv.  49  ;  according  to  2  Sam.  xxi.  8,  two  sons  and 
five  nephews.  The  descent  into  the  world  of  the  dead  agrees  with 
the  lunar  character  (1  Sam.  xxix.  ;  see  p.  184).  Also  the  death  of 
Saul  hints  at  this  motif.  Saul  kills  himself,  after  his  three  sons 
have  fallen."     He  throws  himself  upon  his  spear."     The   Philistines 

'  Is  this  also  a  motif  of  the  fable  of  the  call  to  the  king  ?  The  ass  is  the  beast 
of  the  Messiah  ;  see  p.  147,  n.  3. 

^  For  an  analysisof  the  authorities,  see  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  iii.  153.  We  have 
three  stories  of  the  call. 

•''  Upon  his  father's  death  the  son  of  this  Naljash  caused  the  beard  to  be  half 
sheared  off,  and  the  gamients  to  be  stripped  to  their  waist,  of  David's  messengers, 
who  went  to  condole.  The  beard  is  most  sacred  to  the  Oriental.  Upon  the 
other  insult,  see  pp.  277  f. 

^  Motif  of  the  moon  combat,  see  pp.  26,  166.  Winckler,  loc.  cit.,  155,  is  right 
in  his  conjecture  that  the  groundless  putting  out  of  the  eyes,  which  is  used  also  in 
the  legends  of  Alexander,  is  a  moon  motif.  The  historic  background  may  be  : 
that,  like  Philip  of  Macedon  (the  mythic  arrow  bears  the  inscription  :  "in  Philip's 
eye  "),  the  eye  of  Nahash  had  been  shot  out.     He  wishes  to  revenge  himself. 

'  See  Winckler,  loc.  cit.,  163. 

''  Otherwise  according  to  2  Sam.  i.  10. 

"  Probably  thus  origiiially,  as  the  record  2  Sam.  i.  6  suggests.  i  Sam.  x.xxi.  4 
has  it  "  sword." 

VOL.     II.  12 


178  SAMUEL.  SAUL,  DAVID,  SOLOMON 

cut  ofF  the  head  from  the  body  (xxxi.  9)-^  The  dark  moon  (i.e.  the 
moon  in  death)  is  represented  in  the  lunar  myth  as  cavnäng  the 
severed  head  in  his  arms.  The  spear,  Hkewise,  belongs  to  the 
moon.  For  the  spear  in  the  stories  of  Saul,  compaie  ]  Sam.  xviii. 
10  f.  ;  xix.  10  ;  xx.  33  ;  xxvi.  22  ;  2  Sam.  i.  6.- 

Coins  from  Laodicea,  Tiberius,  Scythopohs,  Caesarea  upon  the 
Sea,  Sebaste,  and  .Eha  CapitoHna  show  the  hermaphrodite  di\  inity 
Onka-Mene  of  Phoenician  Asia  Minor,  who  everywhei-e  symbolises 
the  moon  (Lunu.s  and  Luna),  with  the  spear  in  one  band  and  in  the 
other  a  man's  head.^  One  of  the  places  of  these  coins  (Scythopohs, 
now  Beshan  or  Beisan)  is  identical  with  the  BibHcal  Beth-shean, 
wliere  upon  the  city  walls  the  bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons  were 
hung  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  8  ff.  ;  2  Sam.  xxi.  12).  In  that  district,  there- 
fore,  populär  religion  knew  the  corresponding  moon  motifs.  The 
severed  head  is  also  emphasised  in  the  story  of  Goliath,  see  p.  183, 
and  fig.  165. 

Persian  historical  stories  employ  the  same  motifs  according  to  Herodotus. 
VVhilst  Xenophon  records  that  Cyrus  feil  peacefully  to  sieep  upon  his  death-bed 
(Ktesias  says  he  died  of  a  wound,  according  to  Diodorus  he  was  crucified),  Herodo- 
tus records,  i.  214,  that  after  the  battle  Thomyris,  Queen  of  the  MassaLjetse, 
beheadcd  the  body  of  Cyrus,  and  threvv  the  head  into  a  cesspool  filled  with  bloud, 
and  so  dishonoured  the  body, 

The  emphasis  upon  the  crown  and  bracelets  of  Saul  is  also 
striking  (2  Sam.  1.  10).  There  is  a  great  predilection  for  describing 
the  moon  as  holder  of  the  crown  (bei  age  or  shar  age).  The  horned 
lunar  disc  was  current  as  a  crown.  It  is  so  in  the  conclusion  of 
the  lunar  text,  partly  reproduced  pp.  1 1 1,  i.  f.  The  Omina  speak  of 
the  moon's  crown  at  the  appearance  of  the  new  moon,  further  of 
the  "gigantic  crown"  which  he  wears  for  five  days  (tili  the  half 
moon,  comp.  p.  113,  i.).  That  this  also  plays  upon  one  of  the  pro- 
perties  of  the  myth,  is  shown  by  the  parallel  in  Plutarch, 
Artaxerxes,    17. 

As  in  this  story  the  Amalekite  is  condemned,  who  had  taken 
the  crown  and  bracelets,  so  there  Parysatis  condemns  the  eunuch 
Masabates,  who  had  hewn  off  the  head  and  right  band  (the  members 
which  bear  the  royal  insignia)  of  the  usiu-per :  see  Paton  in 
Z.N.W.,  1901,  340.  * 

1  Sam.  ix.  11:  The  ascent  to  the  city.  We  have  to  think  of  the 
ancient  eitles  of  Canaan  as  exactly  like  a  modern  Arabian  town, 
with  its  narrow  lanes  of  steps  leading  up  to  the  citadel.  Roma 
also  in  its  most  ancient  time  bore  this  "  Oriental  "  appearance.     The 


'   I  Sam   xxxi.  10,  they  hang  his  armour  in  the  temple  of  Ishtar  ;  see  p.  1S3. 

-  See  fig.  159  and  p.  1 15,  i.  ;  comp,  also  Joshua  viii.  18  and  26. 

^  Movers,  Phönizien,  i.  649,  according  to  Eckhel,  Doctr.  nwn.  vef.,  iii  336, 
426,  431,  439  f.,  442.  Here  according  to  Stucken,  Astralmythen,  54  ;  Winckler, 
Gesch.  Isr,,  ii.  169, 


DAVID 


179 


sacrificial   places   are   upon  a    bamah  before   the   gates   of  the   citv 
(ix.    14;  see  figs.    150  and   151). 

1  Sam.  ix.  22  :  The  etiquette  of  the  table,  Saul  and  his  servant 
at  the  head  of  the  guests  ;  comp.  Luke  xiv.  8  ff. 

1  Sam.  X.  1  :  Anointing  with  oil  in  reception  of  the  king. 
xVcc'ording  to  an  Aniarna  Letter  {K.B.,  v.  37),  Thothmes  III. 
anointed  the  grandfather  of  the  princes  of  Nahashshe  to  be 
king.  The  custom  is  therefore  attested  in  the  pre-Israelite 
kingdom  in  Canaan. 

1  Sam.  xiii.  19  ff.  :  This  relation  throws  light  upon  the 
unhappy  circumstances  of  Israel  during  the  period  of  the 
Judses,  and  it  recalls  the      r'^~-'- -m' •- i  ■'^^^"^'^^^ 


passage  in  the  Song  of 
Deborah,  Judges  v.  8 : 
there  was  no  shield  nor 
spear  seen  in  Israel. 

1  Sam.  xvi.  11  :  The 
call  of  David.^  David's 
biography  has  to  take 
into  account  that  the 
story  at  present  before  us 
harmonises  two  traditions 
about  the  hei'o's  youth  : 
the  stories  of  David  the 
shepherd  boy  and  harpist,  L 
and  the  stories  of  David 
the  youthful  hero,  who 
first  comes  to  the  court 
of  Saul  as  conqueror  of  Goliath.  Both  the  traditions  I.  and  II 
record  the  fisht  with  Goliath.'- 


Fig.  163. — Player  and  entranced  listenev 
Reliefen  gate  fiom  Zenjirli  in  Syria. 


^  We  find  the  naine  Da-wi-da-nim  three  times  in  the  Contracts  of  Hammurabi  ; 
see  Ranke,  Personal  Names,  p.  78.  The  pretended  name  Daudu  of  an  Ancient- 
Babylonian  priest-king  of  the  fourth  millennium,  vvhich  was  brought  to  light  in 
the  excavations  of  the  University  of  Chicago  in  Bismya,  does  not  exist.  We 
reproduce  the  statue,  which,  with  its  n:iis]eading  explanation,  went  the  round 
of  the  illustrated  papers  ;  as  an  additional  illustration  to  p.  315,  i.,  see  fig.  164  and 
p.i8i,  n.  I. 

-  For  analysis  of  the  authorities,  see  Klostermann,  B.  Samitclis,  pp.  60  ff.  The 
story  of  the  youthful  hero,  who  (xvii.  55  ff.)  is  still  entirely  unknown  to  Saul, 
begins  xvii.  12. 


180  SAMUEL,  SAUL,  DAVID,  SOLOMON 

In  storv  No.  I.  Jesse's  youngest  boy  is  fetched  from  the  fields  in 
Bethlehem  and  anointed  king.^  (Upon  anointing,  see  p.  179) 
xvi.  1  ff.)  He  ha:?  (xvi.  12,  comp.  18)  reddish  hair,- is  beautiful 
to  look  upon,  and  of  a  well-formed  figure  (Tammuz  motif;  see 
p{).  66  and  177  upon  Saul).  He  had  been  chosen  by  God  tVom 
Ins  youth  ('^•' Yahveh  was  with  him"),  and  already  in  his  youth  had 
accompHshed  heroic  deeds  (xvi.  IS:  more  fully,  xvii.  84  ff.,  where 
the  lion-  and  the  bear-fights  ave  related,  see  p.  170).  He  is  a 
harpist,  poet,  and  singer,^  and  as  such  controls  evil  spirits.  By 
tlie  victory  over  Goliath  he  pvoves  himself  to  be  the  Deliverei*. 

From  this  time  onwards  Saul  became  jealous,  for  David  was  the 
darling  of  the  people  (xviii.  1 6).  Once  as  he  played  in  his  presence, 
Saul,  driven  by  the  evil  spirit,  tried  to  nail  him  to  the  wall  with 
his  spear.^ 

In  storv  Xo.  II.  about  the  warrior  David,  the  fatal  enmity  of  Saul 
is  brought  into  connection  with  the  king's  daughter,  offered  and  re- 
fused,  for  the  victory  over  Goliath  (p.  60,  n.  2).  vSaul  is  jealous  of  the 
warrior.      Michal,  the  daughter  of  Saul,  wams  and  rescues  the  hero.'' 

VVinckler,  GcscIi.  Isr.,  ii.  170  f.,  has  referred  to  the  story  of  the  Indian  King 
Sandracottus  (Sandragupta,  about  300  B.c.,  grandfather  of  Asska),  who  is  of 
humble  parentnge,  before  King  Nandra,  who  seeks  his  life ;  he  flees,  and, 
following  the  command  of  a  dream,  gathers  together  a  band  of  lobbeis,  and 
with  them  carries  on  the  war  for  independence  against  Alexander's  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  so  became  king  (Justin,  xv.  4,  15  ff.)  :  further,  he  draws  attention 
to  the  legend,  according  to  which  Alexander  in  mad  wrath  seeks  to  transfix 
Kleitos  with  a  spear''(in  jealous  displeasure  because  Kleitos  glorified  the  deeds 
of  Philip).  The  points  of  contact  are  not  accidental.  We  have  seen  already  by 
many  examples  that  Oriental  stories  show  preference  for  emphasising  the  same 
motifs.  Bat  the  fact  is  not  that  simple  stories  are  made  up  with  these  motifs 
("  that  the  chroniclers  have  all  in  the  same  way  stolen  from  the  Oriental  legends," 
as  Winckler  in  one  place  expresses  it,  p.  139).  but  the  traditionary  material  may 
very  well  be  historical.  If  we  take  any  historical  episode  whatever  from 
antiquity  which  is  told  without  artificial  motifs,  and  try  to  ornamenl  it  by  the 
help  of  known  motifs,  we  shall  find  how  the  facts  alvvays  lend  themselves  to  it. 
Naturally  there  is  the  possibility  in  every  case  that  the  motifs  have  fitted  wilh 
history.  The  literary  critic  should  therefore  beware  of  concluding  solely  from 
the  application  of  mythological  motifs  that  the  story  has  no  foundation  in  history. 

1  Sam.  xiv.  21  (Hebrews)  ;  see  p.  45,  n.  2. 

1  Sam.  xvii,  1  ff,  :  David  and  Goliath.  In  the  war  with  the 
Philistines  a  champion  offered  himself  to  single  combat.    We  often 

'  Ti*?o  ;  according  to  x.  1,  Saul  is  TJJ,  anointed. 

-  To  be  read  i^'b-  'j:;ix  ;  see  Klostermann  upon  the  passage. 

••  According  to  the  Oriental  idea,  this  all  goes  together.  xvi.  16,  Sept.  «iSc^ra 
^i.KKiw.  Upon  the  gates  of  Zenjirli  (tablet  xxviii.  in  the  publication  of  the 
Berlin  Museum)  a  player  is  pictured,  to  whom  another  is  listening  entranced  ; 
see  fig.  163. 

■*  Comp.  Deut.  xv.  17,  and  to  that  p.  103. 

■■  See  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  170.     Upon  stories  of  rescue,  see  p.  57. 

^  Hejlees,  and  then,  when  he  turns  round,  is  really  pierced. 


DAVID  AND  GOLIATH 


181 


hear  of  this  in  antique  war   stories — for   example,  in  Homer. 
For  the  art  purpose  of  the  story,  one  person  is  made  to  include 


Ik;.  104.— E-SAK,  the  mightyi  king,  King  of  Ud-NUNki  (Adnb). 
Discoveied  in  the  luins  of  the  lemple  of  Bismja  in  Babylonia. 
Comp.  pp.    179  f ,  n.   I,  and  n.  i,  below. 

the  entire  hostile  power.      His  figure  is  drawn  witli  tiie  feature.s 
of  the  power  of  the  Underworld,  the  winter  side  of  the  cycle, 

'  UA-LU  =  da/i/i/i,  "  uiighty,''  asoften  found  in  the  Babylonian  roya]  inscriptions 
(we  aie  indebted  to  H.  Zimmern  for  the  true  Interpretation) ;  the  Americans  have 
read   DA-UDU  and  interpreted  it  as  "the  Sumerian  king  David"!    Inscription 

published  in  ihc  Ainerican  Joinnal  Scinitic  Laii!:^Hagcs,  1904-5,  !'•  59' 


182  SAMUEL,  SAUL,  DAVID,  SOLOMON 

the  dragon  of  chaos.     The  conqueror  is  given  the  features  of 
the  light  year-god,  of  the  Dehverer  who  brings  the  iiew  age.^ 

^  1.  The  name  Gohath  corresponds  to  the  Babylonian  gallitu 
(gallatu),  which  signifies  "  sea."  Thevefore  we  may  perhaps  in 
the  name  Gohath  think  of  the  dragon  (  =  Tehora-Tiamat).2 

2.  He  drew  near  for  forty  daj-s  "  early  and  late,"  xvii.  l6.  We 
know  the  forty  days  as  an  abstract  of  the  winter-time  before  the 
beginning  of  the  early  year ;  see  p.  68,  i. 

3.  In  the  Statement  of  his  height  (six  ells  and  one  span)  hes  the 
other  presentment  of  the  winter-time.  Instead  of  the  forty  days 
of  equinoctial  storm  we  have  the  5j  epagomena  which  preeede 
the  winter-time,  the  new  year,  and  which  are  often  given  in  a 
round  number  as  five,  or  six.  The  Avinter  giant  has  the  corre- 
sponding  motif  number  (in  his  height,  or  as  a  man  with  six  fingers 
and  six  toes :  hke  the  giant  in  2  Sam  xxi.  20;  see  p.  183).  The 
motif  was  no  longer  understood  by  the  author  of  our  story,  and  he 
corrects  it  to  six  ells  and  one  span,  instead  of  five  and  a  span.^ 
Comp,  also  p.  155,  n.  5. 

4.  In  drawing  near  he  uses  mocking  words,  xvii.  10,  23,  26,  36. 
This  is  the  regulär  formality  constantly  recurring  in  the  dragon- 
combat ;  comp.  p.  149,  i-  (Tiamat  mocks  Marduk)  and  Dan.  vii., 
pp.  300  f 

David  opposes  Goliath  as  dragon-slayer :  ' 

1 .  The  king's  daughter  is  offered  as  wife  to  the  conqueror,  xvii.  25 
(II.).  Motif  of  the  king's  daughter  in  the  dragon-combat ;  see 
p.  60,  n   2. 

2.  David  boasts  that  he  has  already  as  a  boy  killed  a  lion  and  a 
bear.      For  the  hero  as  lion-slayer,  see  p.  290,  i.  (fig.  78)  and  pp.  170  f. 

(fig.  161). 

3.  The  emphasis  of  David's  smallness/^  no  armour  fitting  him, 
xvii.  38  ff.,  corresponds  to  the  motif  that  we  find  clearest  in  the 
fairy  story  of  Hop-o'-my-Thumb.''     In   the  myth  of  the  year,  the 

'  Comp.  Winckler,  Gesch.  /sr.,  ii.  172  ff.,  who  has  shown  the  motifs  of  the 
dragon  combat  in  the  story  of  Goliath. 

"  Thus  Peiser,  M.  l'.A.G.,  1901,  73  ;  comp,  Mar-galitu,  "daughter  of  the  sea" 
=  pearl. 

■'■  The  same  motif  in  Strabo,  xiii,  2  f.,  where  Antemenidas  frees  the  Babylonians 
from  great  distress,  by  slaying  with  his  sword  a  gigantic  warrior,  who  measurcd 
five  royal  ells  less  one  span  (the  epagomena  of  the  lunar  year  instead  of  the  five 
of  the  solar-lunar  year?)  In  Herodotus,  vii.  17,  the  builder  of  the  canal  of  Athos, 
Artachsees,  who  is  glorified  as  a  hero,  was  "five  ells  less  four  fingers"  high. 
Examples  quoted  according  to  Winckler,  hc.  cit. 

■*  Two  types  of  the  story  denoted  by  I.  and  11.  ;  see  p.  180. 

■''  Justas  the  "  little,  active"  Alexander  kills  the  giant  Porös,  Pseiido-A'al/islhenes, 
iii.  4  (Winckler,  Gesch.  /sr.,  ii.  176). 

*  It  is  not  possible  to  deny  that  our  fairy  stories  are  füll  of  astral-mythological 
motifs  (upon  Sleeping  Beauty,  see  p.  100,  BKiebcard,  p.  63  ;  and  these  are  only 


DAVID  AND  GOLIATH 


183 


giant  who  incorporates  the  five  intercalary  days  before  the  beginning 
of  spring  is  sometimes  opposed  by  a  little  one,  Avho  corresponds  to 
the  fraction  which  is  contained  in  the  calculation  of  the  equahsed 
solar  and  hmar  year  :  1  in  addition  to  five.  The  five  smooth  stones, 
xvii.  40,  correspond  besides  equally  to  the  winter  giants. 

4..  The  Victor  steps  lipon  (not  "near,"  as  it  is  translated  by 
Kautzsch)  the  slain  giant^ 
xvii.  51.  This  is  a  constant 
motif  of  the  dragon-combat ; 
see  pp.  149,  i.  ;  327,  i.  ;  262; 
comp,  figs.  33  and  -iT. 

5.  He  hangs  the  sword  of 
Goliath  as  a  trophy  in  the 
sanctuary  ;  see  p.  184. 

6.  David  cuts  off  the  head 
of  the  giant  (and  bears  it  in 
triumph).! 

7.  After  the  victory  the  De- 
Hverer  is  glorified  in  a  song  of 
praise. 

That  this  passage  is  referring 
to  an  established  motif  story, 
which  naturally  may  have  an 
actual  eveJit  in  David' s  life  as 
foundation,  but  may  just  as 
Ukely  have  been  freely  inter- 
polated  in  the  biography,  is 
shown  in  2  Sam.  xxi.  19,  where 
it  is  not  David,  but  Elhanan^ 
the  son  of  Jair  of  Bethlehem,  "  who  slew  Goliath  and  Gath,  the 
shaft  of  whose  spear  was  like  a  weaver's  beam."  and  xxi.  l6,  where 
Jonathan  slays  a  giant  who  had  six  fingers  and  six  toes,  and  who 
mocked  Israel  (comp,  the  variant  1  Chron.  xxi.  (xx.)  4  ff.);  further, 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  21,  where  Benaiah  is  described  as  lion-slayer  and 
conqueror  of  the  giant :  he  Avent  against  the  giant  with  a  staff 
(like    David,    1    Sam.    xvii.    40,   43),    wrested   his    spear   from    him, 

casual  examples).  The  agreement  of  many  fairy  stories  with  the  Thousandand  One 
Niglits  has  long  been  observed.  Much  material  came  from  the  East  at  the  time  of 
the  Crusades  and  through  the  Arabs,  who  were  the  means  of  bringing  culture  into 
Europe. 

1  The  head  severed  from  the  body.  Both  the  types  of  the  story  emphasise  this 
(I.  17,  46.  and  54  ;  II.  17,  51,  and  57  ;  for  analysis  of  sources  of  17,  50,  and  51,  see 
Klostermann,  p.  "/},) ;  compare  the  relief  from  the  gate  of  Zenjirli,  fig.  165,  which 
shows  a  conqueror  with  his  enemy's  head.  The  severed  head  is  motif  of  the 
moon  combat,  as  was  mentioned  p.  178.  Together  with  the  motifs  of  the  strife 
between  the  power  of  winter  and  the  spring  (compare  above  upon  the  forty  days), 
that  of  the  sun-moon  combat  is  sounded,  Goliath  appears  also  as  conquered  dark- 
moon  dragon  or  giant  of  winter. 


Fig.  165. — Relief  from  the  gate 
of  Zenjirli. 


184  SAMUEL,  SAUL,  DAVID,  SOLOMON 

and   slew    him  with    the    spear.^     It    is    obvious   that    the    same 
•'Mragon-combat "  was  attributed  to  every  hero. 

We  have  besides  ah-eady  niet  with  the  story  in  quite  another  direc- 
tion,  namely,  in  the  history  of  Sinuhe,  originating  about  2000  B.c. 
(p.  326,  i.),  where  the  Egyptian  hero  in  Canaan  slays  the  gigantic 
foe  in  exactly  related  conditions. 

1  Sam.  XV.  3  ff:  Carrying  out  the  ban  is  indeed  not  ex- 
clusively  a  .sacred  proce.ss.  It  could  only  be  so  interpreted 
by  a  theocratic  mind.  We  often  find  the  inHiction  of  the 
punishment  as  a  severe  custom  of  war  in  the  Assyrian  war 
annals. 

1  Sam.  XV.  32  tf".  ;  comp.  Judges  viii.  21.  Xote  the  ancient  scorn 
of  death. 

1  Sam,  xvi.  14  ff. :  Saul  is  "  troubled  by  an  evil  spirit  from 
Yahveh."  This  may  be  understood  as  the  result  of  the 
physician's  diagnosis ;  comp,  also  xviii.  10,  xix.  9  in  the  sense 
of  the  conception  which  looked  upon  sickness  as  caused  by 
demons.  2  Sam.  xxiv.  13  ff.,  the  "■  pestilence "  is  an  angel  of 
Yahveh.  Music  was  used  as  a  means  of  eure  against  the 
demon  of  melancholy. 

l  Sam.  xix.  12-16  (teraphim)^  see  p.  ö6.  1  Sam.  xix.  13,  see 
p.  52.  1  Sam.  x.\.  6,  see  p.  115.  1  Sam.  xxvi.  19  f.  (odours),  see 
p.  267,  i. 

1  Sam.  xxi.  .9,  the  sword  of  GoHath  wrapped  in  the  garmenl 
is  hung  in  the  sanctuary  as  a  trophy  :  the  same  is  recorded 
in  the  epic  of  Gilgamesh :  the  trophies  of  victory  are  hung  up 
in  the  sanctuary.  In  the  same  way  the  armour  of  Saul  was  hung 
in  the  temple  of  Ishtar  by  the  Philistines,  1  Sam.  xxxi.  10;  see 
p.  178. 

1  Sam.  xxviii.  7  ff.:  Saul  with  the  witch  -  of  Endor. 
Babylonian  writings  have  a  related  story  in  the  epic  of 
Gilgamesh,  who  invokes  the  spirit  of  his  friend  Eabani  froni 
the  dead.-^  Eabani  "  rises  like  a  wind  from  the  gulf  of  the 
Undcrworld "  ;    Samuel   is    an  "  elohim  rising  from  the  earth." 

'   See  Winckler,  Gesch.  Ist.,  ii.  172. 

^  Ishsha  ba'alatöb  ;  in  Bab.-assyr,  Vorst.  vom  Leben  nachdem  Tode,  p.  102  (18S7). 
we  drew  attention  to  the  Babylonian  syllabary  S**  361,  where  the  ideogram  denoted 
as  abütii,  with  the  personal  determinative  clü  {  =  mtishclü  tkimnni,  "he  who  calls 
up  the  spirils  of  the  dead")  indicates  a  sorcerer  or  witch.  Babylonia  and  Canaan 
have  the  word  and  the  thing  in  common. 

■'  See  Hölle  und  Paradies,  2nd  ed. ;   A.O,,  i.  3,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  27  ff. 


SOLOMON  185 

We  have  evidence  of  necromancers  as  priests  in  the  Babylonian 
texts  {CT.,  xxiii.).  Also  the  visit  of  Odysseus  to  the  Under- 
world  to  question  Teiresias  has  been  referred  to.^  Bat  passages 
like  Exod.  xxii.  18,  which  speak  of  the  rooting  out  of  witches, 
give  a  real  foundation  to  the  story. 

1  Sam.  xxxi.  10^  see  p.  62,  n.  I. 

2  Sain.  V.  21  :  Carry iiig  away  statues  of  stränge  gods  by 
David,  That  is  the  sanie  form  of  conquest  as  in  Assyria ; 
see  pp.  292,  i.,  and  189. 

2  Sam.  V.  24 :  A  rustling  in  the  tops  of  the  buka  trees  is 
the  sign  of  Yahveh.  ' 

2  Sam.  xxi.  9  ft".  :  Seven  sons  of  Saul  are  hanged  before 
Yahveh  (comp.  p.  159)  "in  the  first  days  of  the  harvest.'' 
Rizpah  sits  in  mourning  garments  upon  the  rock  "from  the 
beginning  of  harvest,  tili  the  first  rainfall,"  and  scares  away 
the  beasts  of  prey  from  the  bodies.     Xn  Israelite  Niobe.^ 

Solomon 

According  to  2  Sam.  xii.  25,  Solomon's  real  name  was 
Jedidiah.^  The  tradition  places  him  as  prince  of  peace  in 
Opposition  to  the  war-lord  David,  and  emphasises  bis  industry 
in  building  (upon  the  connection  with  Hiram  of  Tyre,  see 
p.  203)  and  his  wisdom. 

1  Kings  ii.  46 :  Solomon's  mines.  The  6ui'aa-Tev/ui.aTa  of 
the  Sept.  is  a  wrong  translation  of  the  Hebrew  m^:;!.'^  It 
means  Solomon's  mines"  in  the  district  of  Lebanon,  which 
in  1  Kings  iv.  16  are  in  Ba'alat ;  Be'ana  was  governor  in 
Asher  and  (set  over)  the  mines.  He  could  only  have  been 
really    governor    in    one    province.     Also    the    metal    furnaces, 

^   Winckler,  Gesc/i.  /sr.,  ii.  i68. 

"  See  Ottli,  Geschichte  Israels,  p.  2S4. 

■■  See  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  241  f.,  and  compare  upon  Niobe,  Röscher, 
Lexikon,  iii.  372  ff. 

■*  The  name  corresponds  also  in  form  to  Salama,  of  which  Ihere  is  evidence  in 
Arabian.  Also  the  Tyrian  divine  name  Shalmayäti  is  related  :  Abimilki  of 
Tyre  in  the  Amarna  Letters  is  a  servant  of  Shalmayäti  and  Tyre  is  the  city  of 
Shalmayäti  ;  see  Winckler,  A'.A.  T.,  ßrd  ed.,  236  ;  Erbt,  Die  Hebräer,  pp.  74,  152. 

^  In  Glaser's  Sabrean  inscriptions  speaking  of  the  rupture  of  a  dam  at  Mareb, 
Vi'2,  signifies  "  to  break  through  the  rock." 

"  See  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  261,  n.  2. 


186 


SAMUEL,  SAUL,  DAVID.  SOLOMON 


1  Kings  vii.  46,  which 
Solomon  had,are  prob- 
ably  to  be  looked  for 
here. 

1  King.s  iii.  16  ff'. : 
The  judgment  of  Solo- 
mon. The  sanie  story 
is  represented  in  a 
Ponipeian  wall-paint- 
ing;  see  fig.  166.  It 
is  quite  out  of  the 
(|uestion  that  this  can 
be  a  Biblical  picture 
possibly  in  a  Jewish 
hou.se,  because  of  the 
representation  of  the 
figures  a.s  caricatures 
(they  are  pigmies). 
The  Ponipeian  picture 
shows,  much  niore 
likely,  that  it  treats 
of  a  traditional  feature 
of  the  fabulous  en- 
dowment-s  of  the''  wi.se 
king."'' 

^  Winckler,  Gesch.  hr.,  ii. 
248:  "The  'judgment  of 
Solomon '  in  the  quarrel  of 
the  two  women  should  natur- 
ally  be  looked  upon  as  a 
Story,  the  substance  of  which 
does  not  belong  to  the  Jewish 
mind,  but  had  been  in  circu- 
lation  in  all  countries  of  the 
East  for  thousands  of  years, 
though  we  have  as  yet  no 
further  evidence  of  it  else- 
where."  Our  picture  offers 
the  required  evidence.  Upon 
the  picture  itself,  comp. 
Overbech,  Pompeji,  584, 
652.     Upon  the  Biblical  ex- 


SOLOMON  187 

1  Kings  iv.  7  fF.  ;  see  p.  45,  i. 

1  Kings  iv.  30  ff.  describes  the  wisdoni  of  Solomon  :  "  ex- 
celled  the  wisdom  of  all  that  dwell  in  the  East  and  all  the 
wisdom  of  Egypt  ....  and  they  came  from  all  people  to 
hear  the  wisdom  of  Solomon."  ^  P.  203  «e  shall  find  the 
tradition  of  Tyre,  which  shows,  in  contradiction  to  this,  that 
Hiram  was  wiser  than  Solomon.  The  art  of  pro\erb-making 
and  the  art  of  making  fahles  in  poetry  is  conmion  to  all  the 
Ancient-East.  Cuneiform  writings  unfortunately  offer  very  little 
material  upon  this  ground  up  to  the  present.  The  Edomites 
also  were  celebrated  as  poets  ;  comp.  Jer.  xlix.  7  ;  Obad.  viii. 

1  Kings  X.  6  :  Lebanon.  The  hill  of  Lebanon  (Assyrian 
Lab-na-na)  was  familiär  to  the  Babylonians  from  the  earliest 
times.  Of  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  "•  Westland ""  mentioned 
by  Gudea — Sub-sal-la  (K.B.,  iii.  1,  p.  35),  Ti-da-num  (ib.,  p.  37) 
— the  latter  (comp.  IL  R.  48,  12:  Tidanu,  Tidnii  =  Amurru) 
probably  denotes  the  northern  Lebanon.  Since  Lebanon 
belonged  to  the  Assyrian  territories  under  Tiglath-Pileser 
(comp.  pp.  195  f.),  wood  for  building  was  brought  from  thence, 
as  the  Egyptians  had  previously  done  (see  fig.  104,  p.  329,  i.)- 
In  the  Wady  Brissa  in  Lebanon  Nebuchadnezzar  had  a  road 
made  to  bring  the  cedars  down.  Rock  reliefs  in  the  Wady 
Brissa  and  at  the  Nähr  el  Kelb  represent  there  how  he  "  breaks 
the  cedars  with  clean  hands.''  -  Amanus  (Am-a-num)  was 
already  by  that  time  probably  rather  denuded  of  trees.  It  was 
alreadv  mentioned  by  Gudea  as  the  hill  from  which  he  brought 
cedars,  and  it  was  represented  as  shad  erini,  "cedar  mountain," 
in  the  chronicles  of  the  Eponyms  tili  the  eighth  Century  b.c.^ 

1  Kings  vi.  29  ;  see  p.  212,  i. 

planation,  rightly  doubted,  of  the  Italian  scholars,  we  may  mention  Victor 
Schultze's  essay  in  Daheim,  18S3,  No.  5,  p.  72. 

'  According  to  the  record  x.  23  ff.  they  brought  offerings  of  homage.  We  may 
recall  Matt,  ii.,  where  the  Magi  bring  their  gifts  to  the  new  king.  The  meaning 
of  the  Story  is  :  Solomon  is  the  expected  Dehverer,  and  he  is  hailed  as  such  (comp. 
Ps.  Ixxii.).  Matt.  ii.  shows  the  same  tendency.  The  great  Deliverer  king  has 
appeared  in  the  Westland,  see  ß. N.T.,  50  ff. 

-  Compare  with  this  Clearing  of  the  wood,  p.  210,  n.  5.  The  inscriptions  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  now  published,  together  with  the  pictures  by  F.  H.  Weissbach, 
Die  Felseninschriften  Nebukadnezars,  ii.,  Leipzig,  1906. 

•*  Comp.  Winckler,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  190. 


188  SAMUEL,   SAUL,    DAVID,   SOLOMON 

\  Kings  vii.  15,  21  :  The  two  pillars  correspond  to  the  obelisks 
at  the  entrance  to  the  temples  of  other  nations.  Inasmuch 
as  the  Temple  reflects  the  throne  of  God,  the  pillars  represent 
the  two  turning-point.s  (solstices)  of  the  /odiac.^  The  two 
pillars  are  called  Jachin  (right)  and  Boaz  (left). 

1  Kings  vii.  23 :  The  niolten  sea  borne  bv  twelve  oxen  served, 
according  to  2  Chron.  iv.  6,  comp.  Exod.  xxx.  18  f..  for  thepriests 
to  wash  in.  Attention  has  rightly  been  drawn  -  to  the  fact  that 
the  construction,  so  inconvenient  for  washing,  points  to  an 
original  symbolic  nieaning.  The  vessel  is,  like  the  brazen  altar, 
which  the  chronicler  in  2  Chron.  iv.  1  writes  in  this  passage, 
derived  froni  stränge  lands  (Hiram  of  Tyre),  and,  like  other 
vessels  of  the  Temple,  is  of  "  Babylonian  "  pattern.  In  Baby- 
lonian  temples  "  oceans "'  were  likewise  placed.  '■ 

1  Kings  vii.  2T  ft'.,  comp.  Jer.  lii.  17  ff.  :  Mekönah,  sacred 
vessel  for  holding  the  consecrated  basin.  It  is  decorated  with 
lions,  oxen,  and  palms.  Hommel  compares  with  it  a  bronze 
vessel  found  in  Cyprus,  which  has  eight  winged  sphinxes  as 
decoration,^  and  which  points  to  a  relationship  with  the  Minaan 
sacred  vessel  makänat.  Also  we  may  recall  the  sacred  chariot  of 
the  heathen  worship  at  Lachish,  mentioned  Micah  i.  13. 

I  Kings  vii.  29,  see  p.  212,  i.  1  Kings  ix.  11'',  12  ff.  :  Solomun 
as  a  vassal  of  Hiram,  see  pp.  203  ff.  1  Kings  ix.  l6,  see  p.  342,  i. 
1    Kings  ix.  24^  see  1  Kings  x.  10.      1  Kings  ix.  26",  see  p.  60. 

1  Kings  X.  1  ff. :  Queen  of  Sheba.  The  story  illustrates  by  an 
example  what  has  been  .said,  1  Kings  iv.  29  ff.     It  is  fabulously 

'  East  and  west,  or  nurtli  and  soulh,  according  to  ihe  oiientatiun,  see  pp.  25,  i.  ff. 
On  the  cylinder  of  Assuibanipal  found  by  Rassam,  II.  41  f.,  the  Assyrian  king 
designatcs  the  two  obelisks  of  the  temple  at  Thebes  as  inanzaz  bah  E-ktcr,  "  posts 
of  the  gate  of  the  temple."  .l/a;/:aa  =  Hebiew,  n;,';,  Exod.  xii.  7  (Station  of  the 
divinity),  for  the  doorposts,  which  have  the  same  religious  signification,  see  p.  103. 
Comp,  also  p.  104,  the  Mazzeboth. 

-  Benzinger,  lionige,  p.  48. 

•'  For  e.xample  of  Urnina,  K.B.,  iii.  i,  13  ;  ul  AgLun-kakrimi,  A'.ß.,  iii.  i,  43, 
comp.  I.  R.  3,  No.  xii.,  1,17.  They  are  water  basins  in  which  certainly  consecrated 
water  for  washing  was  preserved  ;  see  p.  217,  i.,  and  p.  21 1,  i.,  the  consecrated  spring 
of  water  in  the  temple  of  Marduk.  The  Ritual  Text  IV.  R.  23  speaks  of  a  bronze 
basin  with  twelve  bronze  gods  (conipare  with  triis  Hommel,  Aufs.  n.  Abh.,  ii.  229). 

^  Fig.  1S7,  p.  232.  Hommel,  Aufs.  n.  Abk.,  222  ft".  The  bronze  vessel  was 
first  published  and  discussed  by  Furtwängler,  Mütuliencr  Ak.  der  IVüs.,  ii., 
1899,  p,  411. 


QUEEN   OF   SHEBA  189 

embroidered  in  colours  of  the  later  South  Arabian  kingdom  of 
Sheba,  which  was  remote  from  Judah,  Ps.  Ixxii.  10,^  and  lay 
in  the  region  of  fairy  glorv,  Ps.  Ixxii.  15.  But  there  is 
also  no  evidence  of  South  Arabian  queens  later.  In  the  time 
of  Solomon  one  of  the  queens  of  the  North  Arabian  kingdom  of 
Aribi  may  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  they  are  mentioned  by 
Tiglath-Pileser  III.  and  his  successors.'- 

Winckler,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  150,  237,  is  mclmed  to  look  for  the 
historic  basis  in  the  Egyptian  king's  daughter  (according  to 
Winckler,  of  Muzri,  see  above,  p.  287,  i.),  whose  palace  is  mentioned 
1  Kings  ix.  24.,  nnd  who  played  an  important  part  in  Solomon's  hfe. 
Compave  also  Weber,  M.V.A.G.,  1901,  23  f. 

The  answering  of  riddles  is  added  in  2  Chron.  ix.  1  ff. 
Guessing  riddles  is  common  to  the  whole  of  the  Western  Orient. 
On  the  authority  of  Menander  of  Ephesus,  Hiram  of  Tyre  was 
an  expert  in  guessing  riddles,  comp.  pp.  187,  203.  This  arabesque 
of  the  figure  of  Solomon  clearly  betrays  this.  The  Semiramis 
of  the  Jewish  fable  is  also  a  guesser  of  riddles.'^ 

1  Kings  X.  15:  The  pahot  are  "  governors,"  ^  Assyrian 
pahätu,  prefect  of  the  province  (contraction  from  bei  pahäti, 
•'  loi-d  of  the  province  "). 

1  Kings  X.  1 8  ff.  (Solomon's  throne).  Compare  with  this  Wünsche, 
'^Salomo's  Thron  mid  Hippodrom  Abbilder  des  babylonischen 
Himmelsbildes; '  Er  or.  lux,  ii.  3.  The  six  steps  lead  up  to  the  seat 
of  God  (comp.  pp.  310  and  57,  i,  f.  ;  further,  p.  55,  on  Jacob' s  dream, 
and  pp.  15.  i.  f.  and  57,,  i.,  on  the  tower  of  seven  stages).  Wünsche 
shows  in  a  surprising  wav  how  the  knowledge  of  the  Ancient-Oriental 
picture  of  heaven  is  reflected  in  the  Agada  above  Solomon's  throne 
and  in  the  Hippodrom. 

1  Kings  X.  28,  see  Ezek.  xl.  tf.  1  Kings  x.  28,  comp.  2  Chron.  i. 
16  f.,  see  p.  284,  i.  1  Kings  xi.  4  ff.,  see  pp.  60,  92.  1  Kings  xi. 
5  and  23,  comp.  Ezek.  xxiii^  13  :  see  Gen.  xxxviii.  14  ff.,  p.  6l. 

1  Kings  xi.  7  :  Solomon  builds  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem 
(according  to  xi.  7,  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives)  places  of  worship 

1  Matt.  xii.  42  :   "  fi'om  the  ends  of  the  world." 

2  Comp.  Winckler,  K.A.T.,  3 rd  ed.,  57,  150. 

3  Comp.  Fz.  Dehtzsch,  Die  Bluinenrätsel  der  /■Cönigm  von  Saba  in  Iris, 
Farbenstudien  und  Blumenstiicke,  pp.  1 1 5  ff.  U  pon  Babylonian  riddle- writing,  see 
Jäger,  B.A.,  ii.  274  ff. 

^  In  Isaiah,  see  xli.  25,  and  in  Ezek.  xxiii.  6,  12,  23  we  find,  together  with  this 
as  a  higher  rank,  the  seganttn  -  Assyrian  shaknüti. 


190  SAMUEL.   SAUL,   DAVID.   SOLOMON 

for  the  gods  of  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites.  This  heathenising 
process  is  a  result  of  political  events.  Conquests  were  sealed  by 
carrying  away  the  statues  of  the  stränge  gods  and  articles  of 
the  cultus.  In  2  Sani.  v.  21  a  precedent  is  recorded  of  David. 
In  contradiction  to  pure  Yahveh  religion,  which  the  Mosaic 
law  required,  and  which  estabhshed  Yahveh's  lordship  over  the 
whole  World  and  over  all  nations,  the  Yahveh  populär  religion 
saw  in  the  gods  of  the  heathen  real  powers,  gods  of  the  land, 
who  were  irrevocably  bound  up  with  the  fate  of  their  territories. 
Solomon,  at  tinies  when  his  religious  life  was  not  at  its  highest, 
was  very  near  to  this  populär  religion  (the  Deuteronomist  says  : 
"  when  Solomon  had  grown  old ").  The  lapse  into  paganisni 
caused  by  the  stränge  women  of  the  harem  which  the 
"  Deuteronomist '■■  blames,  xi.  1  ff.,  is  very  similar.  Political 
treaties  in  the  Ancient  East  were  everywhere  ratified  by 
marriage,  that  is,  by  sending  stränge  princesses  to  the  harem 
of  the  allied  ruler. 

The  marriage  of  Solomon  with  the  Egyptian  princess  is  thus 
explained,  and  the  marriage  of  Ahab  with  the  princess  of  Tyre. 
But  for  the  gods  of  these  stränge  women  chapels  and  altars 
had  to  be  erected.  It  may  be  imagined  what  devastation  this 
circumstance  would  introduce  into  the  religious  condition 
of  Jerusalem. 

1  Kings  xi.  29  ff.  :  The  prophet's  mantle  is  torn  into  twelve 
pieces.  The  act  agrees  with  cosmic  symbolism,  which  is  linked 
to  the  sacred  garment,  and  which  has  been  spoken  of  pp.  177,  i. 
and  135.^  The  mantle  signifies  the  cosmos,  or  the  microcosmos 
of  the  kingdom,  or  what  in  idea  is  the  same,  knowledge  and 
power  over  fate.  It  bears  the  same  relationship  in  the  mantle 
of  Elijah. 

The  call  to  Elislia  is  accomplished  by  Elijah  casting  iiis  mantle 
over  him.  The  meaning  of  it  follows  upon  tlie  above  remavks  on 
the  mantle  of  the  prophet  of  Shiloh.  2  Kings  ii.  8,  14,  the  rolled-up 
mantle  divides  Jordan  (motif  of  the  disruptiou  of  the  dragon) ;  ii. 
13,  Elisha  takes  the  mantle  of  Elijah  naturally,  in  order  to  wear  it 
in  future  in  Elijah' s  stead. 

'  Upon  Ps.  civ.  2  (heaven  as  garment  of  God)  we  lind  in  Gunkel,  Ausgewählte 
Psalmen,  p.  258,  quoted  from  the  Persian  :  Yasht  xiii.  3,  "That  heaven  .... 
Mazda  takes  to  himself  as  a  garment,  star-embroidered,  god-wovcn." 


THE   MANTLE  191 

1  Kings  xii.  1 1  :  Solomon  has  chastised  with  whips,  Rehoboam 
will  chastise  with  scorpions.  In  this  pictorial,  probably  proverbial, 
form  of  Speech  is  hidden  a  motif.  Comp.  M.l'.A.G.,  1901,  311, 
312  ;  and  the  scourge  of  Osiris  in  Erman's  Aeg.  Religion,  p.  17  ;  the 
-uqaqipu  is  also  attested  in  Babylonian  as  some  kind  of  instrument. 
Xerxes  scouvged  the  Hellespont,  and  drove  the  army  into  battle 
with  whips  ;  made  them  labour  under  the  scourge,  and  drove  the 
soldiers  with  scourges  over  the  bridges  of  the  Hellespont.  Hero- 
dotus,  vii.  35.  22,  56,  223  ;  see  Mücke,  P'o?n  Euphrui  zum  Tiber, 
p.  9-5.  Ktesias,  23,  relates  the  same.  What  is  the  meaning  .?  Upon 
the  fact,  p.  205,  n.  2. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE    POUTICAL    HISTORY    OF    THE    STATES    OF    ISRAEL    AXD 
JUDAH    IN   THE    LIGHT   OF    THE    MOXU.MENTS 

The  Authorities 

The  history  ot"  the  state  of  Israel  is  developed  in  the  midst  of  a 
brisk  intercourse  with  the  great  civilised  states  of  the  Ancient- 
East.  The  Biblical  tradition  itselt'  gives  a  lively  picture  of  these 
circumstances.  The  so-called  historical  books  in  their  present 
condition  no  longer  show  much  of  it,  since  the  annals  (above  all 
"  the  book  of  the  wars  of  Yahveh"")  which  were  open  to  the  authors 
of  our  Books  of  the  Kings  have  for  the  most  part  been  lost.^ 
To  the  authors  of  our  Books  of  the  Kings  it  was  not  historical 
stories  they  were  relating,  but  religious  events,  for  which  reason 
the  historical  books  are  called  in  the  Jewi.sh  tradition  "the 
earlier  prophets.""  Fragments  like  2  Kings  viii.  show  how  exactly 
the  earlier  sources  of  the  relations  were  orientated  to  the 
surrounding  world,  and  the  table  of  nations,  Gen.  x.,  pre- 
supposes  a  surprisingly  accnrate  knowledge  of  political  geography 
and  of  national  niovements  in  the  eighth  Century.'-  Elisha  is  just 
as  well  acquainted  with  circumstances  in  Tyre  as  with  circum- 
stances in  Israel.  He  appears  even  to  be  a  subject  of  Tyre. 
And  he  is  in  lively  relation  to  Damascus.  But,  above  all,  the 
Oracles   of  written   prophecy "'   show   that    the   leading  men   in 

'  The  Books  of  the  Chronicles  also  contain  an  historical  core,  and  are  not 
absolutely  valueless  as  history.  We  repeatedly  come  across  valuable  Statements  in 
the  Chronicles.      Benzinger's  Commentary  has  recognised  this. 

^  See  pp.  275,  i.  ff.  and  Map  I. 

^  It  is  pure  accident  that  in  the  extant  literature  Arnos  appears  as  the  first 
prophet  to  commit  his  utterances  to  writing.  The  earlier  period  also  certainly 
possessed  written  remains  of  its  prophets. 

19^ 


SOüRCES    OF   THE   STORIES  193 

Israel  and  Judah  occupied  themselve>.  with  the  greatest  interest 
in  the  politics  of  their  time,  and  that  they  stood  m  close 
intercourse  with  the  .surrounding;  nations. 

Before  the  cuneiform  writings  of  the  monunients  had  been 
deciphered,  which  were  brought  to  light  from  the  palaces  of 
Nineveh.  and  partly  also  from  Babylonian  ruins,  a  stränge 
picture  was  presented  by  the  nmnuscript  sources  of  the  history 
of  Assyria  and  ßabylonia  for  the  time  from  the  middle  of  the 
eighth  Century  tili  538— that  is  to  say,  for  the  period  of  political 
dependence  of  Israel-Judah  upon  the  kingdonis  on  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates.  There  were  points  in  chronology  which  can  be 
verified  with  absolute  certainty.  But  the  aecounts  of  the  events 
themselves  were  extremely  meagre. 

The  excerpts  preserved  from  DiodoruSj  and  the  stories  of  Ktesias 
about  the  history  of  Nineveh  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Medes,  which 
for  two  thousand  years  brought  confusion  into  the  history  of  Assyria,, 
have  been  proved  quite  useless. 

These  authorities  come  into  consideration : 

(a)  The  astronomical  ''  Canon  of  Ptolemy  "  in  its  first  division  to 
the  time  of  Cyrus.  It  contains  an  astronomical  calendar  from 
Nabonassav  onwards,^  which  gave  the  astronomical  events  of  each 
royal  year.  The  Babylonian  calendar  passed  to  Egypt  and  was 
continued  there,  with  Avholh'  incorrect  figures  (by  Hipparchus  ?), 
and  carried  on  to  several  centuries  after  Christ.  It  is  named  after 
Claudius  PtoleniKus,  becafuse  he  mentioned  the  lists  and  handed 
them  on  anfalsified.  Lunar  eclipses  are  given  for  747-538,  which 
were  verified  later,  and  found  to  correspond  to  the  Julian  calendar. 

(6)  Fragments  and  notices  from  the  Chaldaean  history  by  Berossus. 
He  was  contemporary  with  Alexander,  and  wrote  in  the  Service  of 
the  Seleucids  bis  three  books,  XaXSat/ca  and  BaßvXwvLaKci.  As  he 
was  a  priest  of  the  temple  of  Marduk  in  Babylon,  he  had  a  rieh 
source  of  documents  at  his  disposal.  The  monumental  cuneiform 
writings  have  given  brilliant  proof  of  his  reliability. 

(c)  Notices  out  of  Abydenus  so  far  as  they  concern  Babylon.  He 
is  later  than  Berossus,  and  wrote,  according  to  Moses  of  Chorene, 
"Origins"  (probably  =  'ApxMoXoyLKo);  according  to  Eusebius,  histories 
of  Chaldfea,  Assyria,  and  of  the  Medes. 

(d)  The  notices  of  Herodotus  upon  the  histories  of  the  Medes, 
Lydians,  Babylonians,  and  Egyptians,  as  he  heard  them  in  all  good 
faith  from  the  natives. 

(e)  Upon  the  history  of  Tyre,  three  fragments  of  the  writings 

^  See  pp.  75,  i.  f.,  and  compare  besides  Syncellus,  Chronogy.,  267  :  ktth  Naßa- 
vaacipov  Tohs  XP'^*'^^^  '^'Js  Touf  acmpaiv  Kirrjcrecos  XaA.5rtioi  rjKplßcufTaV. 

VOL.    IT.  13 


194-     POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

of  Menander  of  Ephesus  in  Josephus,  C.  Apioii,  i.  117  (1 13  I)  to  125 
(Ajii.,  viii.  144);  i.  158  (Aiit.,  ix.  283). 

Josephus  himself  cau  only  be  included  wheii  it  is  a  case  of 
confirming  a  record  from  another  soiirce.  Chronographers  like 
Eusebius  and  Syncelhis  are  useless.  Their  writings  are  not  founded 
lipon  good  authority.  The  little  they  knew  they  -wrested  forcibly 
to  fit  their  system^  and  it  is  not  possible  to  distinguish  trutli  troni 
falsehood. 

The  Assyrian  inscriptions  brought  rieh  sources  of  material  tor 
judging  of  the  middle  period  of  the  kings.  It  is  worthy  of  em- 
phatic  note  that^  in  the  beginning,  the  statements  of  the  Bible  gave 
much  enUghtennient  towards  deciphering  the  Assyrian  annals. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  tenth  Century  we  possess  unbroken 
records  of  Assyrian  kings  ;  the  royal  inscriptions  only  fail  for  the 
period  781-744. 

With  893  the  Liinu  Hsts  begin^^  whicli  are  overlapped  by  the  later 
Babylonian  Hsts  and  chrunicles.  They  are  ahiiost  complete  for  the 
middle  period  of  the  Israelite  kings.  What  the  catalogues  of  the 
Archons  are  for  the  study  of  Greek  history,  and  the  Consular  Fasti 
for  Roman  history,  the  lists  of  the  Assyrian  eponyms,  named 
after  the  Greek  prototype,  are  for  the  history  of  Western  Asia. 
Tlie  copy  preserved  to  us  begins  with  Adad-nirari  IL,  son  of 
Tiglath-Pileser  II.,  of  whom  we  know  nothing  but  the  nauie.  He 
reigned  tili  890  (891).  Our  fragment  begins  in  893.  Probably 
the  lists  began  in  911-  With  this  year  a  new  saros  (  =  600  years) 
seems  to  have  begun.  The  beginning  of  the  next  saros  falls  in 
312/11  and  opens  the  era  of  the  Seleucids.  The  fragments  reach 
to  666,  and  therefore  they  sup})lement  the  Ptolemaic  Canon  of  the 
years  747-555,  or  538. 

The  part  of  the  list  which  is  of  special  importance  is  a  particular 
column  which  communicates  the  most  important  facts  of  the  year 
in  questiou.  So  in  the  ninth  year  of  Asurdan  it  is  said  :  •''  In  the 
nionth  Sivan  an  eclipse  happened  to  the  sun."  It  may  be  reckoiied 
that  the  statements  can  only  refer  to  the  total  solar  eclipse  which 
was  observed  in  Nineveh  on  15th  June  763  b.c.  This  would  give 
to  Asurdan,  the  years  of  whose  reign  may  be  counted  according  to 
the  list,  from  772-754.  Accordingly  the  reigns  of  the  previous 
and  the  foUowing  kings  can  be  most  accurately  established. 

Supplementary  to  the  Limu  lists  are:  (1)  The  so-called  "Syn- 
chronistic  History/'  a  fragment  of  diplomatic  acts,  an  extract  from 
archives  concerning  certain  dealings  between  Assyria  and  Babylon.- 
(2)  The  Babylonian  Chronicle  (from  the  library  of  Assurbanipal, 
transcript  of  a  Babylonian  original).^     (3)  A  Babylonian  list  of  kings.* 

1  /sT.ß.,  i.  204  ff. 

2  /CB.,  i.  194  ff. 

■'  /'l'.B.  ii.,  273  ff.,  rccently  published  by  Delitzsch  ;  in  Jd/t.  d.  A'gl.  Sachs.  Ges. 
der  Wissenschaften,  1906. 
*  A'.B.,  ii.  28S. 


MOUNT  CARMEL  THE  BOUNDARY     195 

PolHical  Rights  in  Sijria  as  far  as  Mount  Cannel 

About  1500  the  power  of  the  Egyptian  kiiig.s  (eighteenth 
dynasty)  extended  as  far  as  Mesopotaniia.  Thothmes  III.,  under 
w'hom  probably  the  supremacy  over  Canaan  and  Egypt  ^as 
established  (see  pp.  327,  i.  f.),  had  already  forced  the  Hittite^ 
to  pay  tribute.  In  the  Amarna  period  the  Hittites  appear  as 
powerful  foes  of  the  Egyptians. 

The  siher  fablet  treaty,^  which  after  long,  warlike  complica- 
tion.s  was,  about  1270,  concluded  for  niutiial  help  between  the 
Hittite  king  Khattiisar  and  Pharaoh  Rameses  II.,  appears  to 
have  given  up  Syria  as  far  as  Mount  Carmel  to  the  Hittites. 
Fully  one  hundred  years  later  the  Assyrian  king  Tukulti-apil- 
eshara  (Tiglath-Pileser)  I.,  under  whoni  Assyria  was  for  a  short 
tinie  a  great  ruling  power,  infringed  the  rights  of  the 
Hittites."  He  overthrew  theni  in  the  north  and  north-east,^ 
passed  over  the  Euphrates,  took  possession  of  the  land  up  to  the 
Taurus,  and  undertook,  after  the  nianner  of  the  ancient 
Babylonian  kings,  to  open  the  road  which  led  through 
Karkeniish,  Aleppo,  and  Hamath  to  the  Mediterranean.  He 
conquered  the  Hittite  king  [  .  .  ,  .  J-Teshuj)  and  pressed  as 
far  as  the  coast  of  Phcenicia.  During  the  stay  of  his  court  in 
Arvad  ^  he  received  an  ambassador  from  the  Egyptian  king. 
Then  he  advanced  along  the  Phoenician  coast  and  probably 
placed  the  first  Assyrian  statue  at  the  Nähr  el  Kelb 
(Ba^i-ra^si).'  By  this  political  act  the  ancient  territory  of 
the    Hittites,    which    reached    to    Carmel,  passed  over  to  the 

^  Last  translated  and  considered  by  Messerschmidt,  A.O.,iv.  i ,  2nd  ed. ,  pp.  6  ff.  ; 
comp,  p  330,  i.  The  Hittite  original  in  Babylonian  cuneiform  character  was 
discovered  by  H.   Winckler  in  Boghazkoi. 

'  In  the  inscription  of  Bavian,  line  50,  Sennacherib  mentions  an  event  which 
happened  418  years  before  his  conquest  of  Babylon  (689).  This  gives  the  year 
1107  as  a  certain  date  for  the  reign  of  Tiglath-Pileser.  The  inscriptions  of  the 
first  six  years  of  his  reign  (A'.B.,  i.  14  ff.,  and  in  addition  the  broken  obelisk 
which  belongs  to  this  time,  125  ff.)  are  as  yet  our  chief  historical  authorities  for 
this  period. 

^  Inscriptions  in  grotto  near  the  source  of  the  Euphrates,  III.  R.  4,  No.  6  ; 
A'.B.,i.  48  f. 

*  In  the  later  Assyrian  campaigns  this  northernmost  Phoenician  city  is  not 
mentioned.     It  remained  under  Assyrian  dominion. 

'  See  p.  319,  i. 


196     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JÜDAH 

great  Assyrian  king.  This  is  an  important  point  for-the 
comprehension  of  the  later  Assyrian  claims  in  the  wars  with 
Israel. 

There  conies  now  a  gap  of  a  hundred  years  in  our  traditions. 
Shalmaneser  II.  nientions  the  effbrts  of  one  of  his  predecessors 
of  this  period,  Assur-(h)irbi,  to  retain  the  conquests  in  Syria 
and  Phoenicia,  and  records  that  he,  like  Assur-irbi,  had  erected 
his  statiie  by  the  sea.^ 

Formation  of  the  Small  Mediterrnnean  States 

During  this  period  of  Egypt's  weakness  and  the  Hittite  wars 
the  nations  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  could  develop  in 
comparative  freedom  and  independence.-  Phoenician  city- 
kingdoms  arose,  for  a  time  as  it  appears,  under  the  leadership  of 
Sidon,  later  of  Tyre.  On  the  southern  coast  (rather  southward 
from  Dor)  the  Philistine  state  consolidated  itself,  which  owes 
its  rise  ^  to  a  settlement  of  a  remnant  of  the  so-called  "  sea- 
people."  In  the  land  of  Jordan  the  formation  of  the  states  of 
Israel- Judah  was  completed,  and  the  states  of  Edom,  Moab,  and 
Amnion  arose.  In  Syria,  in  the  territory  of  the  ancient 
Hittites,  arose  Aran)aic  states.  Already  since  the  middle  of 
the  second  millennium  there  are  hints  of  the  Aramaya.^  About 
1000  B.c.  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,,  tili  then  overrun  by 
Hittites,  have  a  preponderant  Aramaic  population.  Only 
Palestine  itself  did  not  become  Ai'amaic.  But  here  also  there 
are  traces  of  its  influenae ;  after  the  time  of  Assyrian  rule 
(ninth  Century)  the  business  language  of  Palestine  was  Aramaic. 
The  most  important  states,  with  a  mixed  Hittite-Aramaic 
population,  are : 

1.  The  State  of  Patin,  northward  and  southwai'd  from  the 

'  These  would  be,  therefore,  Nos.  2  and  3  of  the  Assyrian  statues  to  be  sought 
on  the  Nähr  el-Kelb.  No.  i  was  the  first  -  mentioned  monument  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I. 

-  The  most  remarkable  evidence  of  this  period  of  free  intellectual  development 
is  the  introduction  of  the  Hebrew  alphabetic  writing  in  place  of  the  Babylonian 
syllabic  and  verbal  script  of  which  there  is  evidence  in  the  Amarna  period  and 
still  later.  Alphabetic  writing  is  attested  in  North  Syria  by  the  Pananimü 
inscription  found  at  Zenjirli  and  in  the  later  Bible  land  by  the  Moabite  stone. 

''  See  p.  346,  i.,  n.  2  ;  comp.  p.  337,  i. ,  n.  i. 

*  Comp.  A.O.,  iv. ,  3rd  ed.,  Sanda,  Die  Aramäer. 


DAMASCUS  197 

Orontes    district.       It  is  probably  ideiitical  with    the  Biblical 
Padan-Aram.     Southward  from  this — 

2.  The  State  of  Hamath. 

3.  The  State  of  Damascus.i  For  the  Biblical  historian 
Dainascus  (Arani  Dammazek)  is  the  essence  of  the  Aramtean 
kingdoni. 

As  the  states  of  Israel-Judah  were  temporarily  alternately 
under  Tjrian  and  uiider  Daniascene  supreniacy,  we  must  direct 
our  attention  to  the  histories  of  Damascus  and  Tyre,  in  order 
to  understand  the  political  history  of  Israel. 

Damascus 

In  all  ages  Damascus  was  the  key  to  Syria.  From  hence  the 
Caravan  road  led  eastward  to  Babylonia,  southward  to  Arabia, 
northward  to  Mesopotamia,  and  westward  over  the  passes  of 
Lebanon  to  Sidon  and  Tyre  and  the  northern  Phoenician  cities. 
Also  the  via  uuiris  of  Isaiah  led  by  the  sources  of  Jordan  to 
Damascus. 

Unfortunately,  we  are  dependent  for  our  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  Damascus  almost  entirely  upon  the  Biblical  records 
and  the  cuneiform  niscriptions.  There  is  little  hope  of  find- 
ing  any  native  Damascene  tradition.  The  name  Dimashq 
points  to  a  non-Semitic  founding  of  the  city,  which  is  pre- 
historic.  At  the  period  historically  interesting  to  iis  the 
population  must  have  been  a  mixed  Aramaic-Hittite  race.  But 
this  population  liad  inherited  the  same  Seniitic  civilisation 
which  was  brought  by  the  "  Canaanite  "  -  migration,  the  flood- 
tide  of  which  in  the  third  millennium  overflowed  Western  Asia. 
It  is  shown  that  this  civilisation  still  existed  by  2  Kings  v.  18 
amongst  others,  according  to  which  Rimmon  was  the  divinity 
worshipped  at  Damascus,  that  is,  the  Babylonian  Ramman,  in 
whom  the  Hittites  recognised  their  Teshup.^ 

^  South  of  Damascus  the  small  State  Zobah  (Assyrian  Subiti,  named  in  2  Sam. 
X.  1-14  near  Ma'acah  and  Rehob).  The  exegesis  formerly  erroneously  assumed, 
upon  the  authority  of  2  Sam.  viii.  and  x.,  comp,  i  Kings  xi.  23,  a  large  Aramsean 
kingdom  of  Zobah,  which  was  annihilated  by  David,  and  which  was  separate  from 
the  Aramsean  kingdom  of  Damascus.  Compare  upon  this  \Vinckler,  Gesch.  Isr., 
i.  138  ff. 

-  See  p.  2,  i.,  note. 

"  Comp.  fig.  46,     Upon  the  corresponding  Aramaean  divinity,  see  p.  198    n.  2. 


198     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

From  the  sixteenth  centuiy  onwarcls  \ve  meet  with  Damascus 
as  one  of  the  Svrian  cities  in  Egyptian  inscviptions.  In  the 
Canaanite  letters  in  the  archives  of  Aniarna,  "Dimashqi  in 
the  lancl  of  Ubi  "  (possibly  =  Hoba  of  Gen.  xiv.  15)  appears, 
not  verv  prominentlv.  Aceoi'ding  to  the  Biblical  tradition, 
the  district  was  subject  to  the  state  of  Judah  in  the  time  of 
David.  In  the  time  of  Solomon  (about  950)  Damascus  became 
the  seat  of  an  Aramaic  kingdom  through  Rezon,  an  officer  of 
the  king  of  Aram-Zoba,  who  took  possession  of  Damascus,  as 
leader  of  a  band  of  freebooters.  1  Kings  xi.  23  ff. :  "  Rezon  was 
Israelis  adversarv,  so  long  as  Solomon  lived."  The  actual 
founder  of  Damascene  power  is  Ben-hadad  (885-843).  1  Kings 
XV.  18  his  ancestors  are  named :  Tab-Rinnnön  and  Hezion  ; 
the  lattor  probably  erroneously  for  Rezon. ^  Ben-hadad,'-  who 
subjugated  Israel  under  Baasha,  and  then  again  after  it  had 
allied  itself  with  Tyre,  was  a  powerful  Opponent  of  the 
Assyrians. 

The  first  king  on  the  Uniu  list,  spoken  of  at  p.  194,  is 
Tukulti-Ninib  I.  (889-884),  who  carved  his  statue  in  the 
grotto  at  the  source  of  the  Euphrates,  near  that  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I.  He  was  followed  by  Asurnazirpal  III.  (884-860). 
He  saved  Mesopotamia,  fought  against  the  Aranueans  who 
were  settling  there,  chiefly  against  Bit-Adini  {i.e.  b'ne  'Eden 
of  the  Bible)  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Haran,  passed  over  the 
Euphrates,  fought  against  the  Hittitcs,  renniants  of  whom 
had  gradually  grouped  themselves  round  about  Garganiish, 
and  opened  the  way  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  for  Assyrian 
power.  He  next  succeeded  in  overthrowing  the  northernmost 
of  the  Aramaean  states,  Patin.  He  conquered  the  king 
Lubarna,  and  made  his  city  of  Aribua  into  a  centre  for  an 
Assyrian  colony.  This  brought  him  to  the  northern  boundary 
of  Hamath,  which  adhered  to  Damascus.     He  avoided  war  with 

'  Thus  with  Klostermann  ;  see  Gesenius-Buhl,  s.v.  jip. 

^  Thus  JSI.T.,  LXX.  vlos  'A5«p,  Assyrian  IM-'idri.  The  ideogram  of  divinity 
IM  must  be  read  as  Adad  or  Ramman  or  Bir.  Possibly  Bir  (in  investiture  docu- 
ments  named  Be-ir  together  with  Adad,  see  K.A.  'f.,  3rd  ed.,  134)  is  the  Aramaic 
divinity  corresponding  to  the  "Canaanite"  (see  p.  124,  i.)  Ramman  and  Adad, 
and  to  the  Hittite  Teshup  (see  p.  124,  i.).  From  Biblical  tradition  the  existence 
of  two  Ben-hadads  has  erroneously  been  concluded. 


PHCENICIA  199 

Damascns,  but  rather  passed  sontliAvards  along  the  sea,  and 
had  his  statue  cavved  at  the  Nähr  el-Kelb.^  Tyre  and  Sidon 
paid  tribute  to  hiui.  His  successor,  Shahiianeser  II.  (869-825), 
took  up  the  war  against  Daniascus,  without  niaterial  result,  in 
spite  of  fierce  assaults.-  His  annals  record  his  campaign  in 
the  sixth  year  of  his  reign  (854).  He  overthrew  Aleppo 
(Hahnan).  Farther  south,  on  the  Orontes,  near  Qarqar,  the 
fighting  strength  of  Daniascus  canie  against  him  under  the  leader- 
ship  of  Ben-hadad  ("alhance  of  Syrian-Haniathite  cities"), 
Haniath,  together  with  those  of  the  Hatti  land  (general  term 
of  the  Assyrians  for  Syria)  and  of  the  sea-coasts.  Ahab  of 
Israel  (A-ha-ab-bu  matu  sir-'i-la-ai)  took  part  with  two  thousand 
chariots  and  ten  thonsand  men.  The  great  king  of  Assyria 
announces  that  he  was  A-ictor  in  an  awful  battle,  and  dannned 
the  Orontes  with  bodies  of  the  slain  as  by  a  bridge.  In 
reahty  he  was  stopped  froni  making  further  advance.  Also  in 
849  and  846  his  attempts  were  fruitless.  The  Assyrian  policy 
then  turned  to  isolating  Damascus.  We  have  to  follow  out 
the  further  fortunes  of  the  state  of  Daniascus  in  the  course  of 
the  history  of  Isi-ael. 

Phoemcia,  especially  Tyre ' 

So  long  as  darkness  veiled  the  civilisation  of  the  Ancient- 
East,  the  importance  of  Phoenicia  was  vastly  overrated  on  the 
ground  of  the  information  in  classical  writings.  The  fifty 
niiles  of  coast-land,  bounded  at  the  back  by  Lebanon,  could 
not  produce  any  independent  civilisation,  nor  could  it  com- 
mand  the  seas  by  its  own  power.  The  "  Phcenicians "  belong 
to  the  sanie  Stratum  of  people  which  populated  Babylon  with 
Seniites  and  the  valley  of  the  Nile  with  the  Hyksos,  Canaan 
with  Annnonites,  Moabites,  Edomites,  and  lastly  with  Israel. 
They  form  the  first  movement  forward  of  this  people's  march, 

^   No.  4  of  the  Assyrian  monuments  to  be  sought  on  the  rocks  (p.  196,  n.  l). 

-  The  text  upon  the  following  is  in  K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  pp,  14  ff. 

•"  Works  upon  the  subject  :  Pietschmann,  Die  Geschichle  der  Phöuizie}-,  1S89  ; 
Fr.  Jeremias,  Tyrus  bis  zur  Zeit  Nebttkadnezars  ;  v.  Landau  in  Ex  or.  Ittx,  i.  4, 
and  A.O.,  ii.  4  ;  Wincklcr  in  A.O.,  vii.  2  ("Die  Euphratländer  und  das  Mittel- 
meer"); further  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  pp.  126  ff.,  and  Auszug  aus  der  Vorderasiat. 
Geschichte,  pp.  74  ff. 


200     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

which  from  liere  outwards  pressed  on  towards  the  coasts  of 
North  Africa.  But  t.hev  found  civilised  states  there  before 
them,  of  whose  history  we  know  nothing.  Sargon,  or  his  son 
Naramsin,  was  obeyed  by  the  kings  of  the  sea-coast  and  thirty- 
two  cities ;  see  p.  319,  i. 

In  the  Amarna  period  w  e  find  independent  cities  along  the 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  no  disposition  to  the  forma- 
tion  of  states.  But  it  was  a  uniform  population  as  far  as  Gaza. 
The  writing.s  of  a  King  Zimrida  of  Sidon  and  letters  from 
Abimilki  of  Tyre  are  in  the  archives  of  Amarna.  Map  II. 
shows  the  cities  mentioned  in  the  Amarna  Letters.  Then 
the  cities  came  successively  under  Hittite  or  Assyrian  dominion. 
Tiglath-Pileser,  who  carried  the  claims  of  the  Hittites  as  far 
as  Carmel,  took  up  his  quarters  in  Arvad.  When,  about  1100, 
the  Assyrians  emerged  here  (pp.  195  f.),  the  Phoenician  cities 
offered  no  resistance.  L^nhke  Damascus,  they  were  much  more 
drawn  to  the  Assyrians. 

The  principal  towns  northward  from  Carmel  lie  at  an  almost 
symmetrical  distance  apart :  Arvad  (Aruada,  Tripoli),  Gebal 
(Gubla),  Beerot  (Berunu,  Beirut),  Sidon  (Sidonia),  Tyre 
(Tsurru),  Akka  (Ptolemais).  Southward  from  Carmel  the 
cities  in  like  manner  bear  Phoenician  character,  although  they 
were  under  Israelite  and  Philistine  influence  :  Dor,  and  not  far 
from  there  Migdal-Ashtoret  (Stratonsburg,  Stratonos  Pyrgos),^ 
and  the  only  haven  which  came  into  consideration  for  Israel 
and  Judah,^  Jaffa  ( Japu,  Joppa).  From  here,  after  the  fourteenth 
Century,  stretched  the  Philistine  territory. 

Arvad,  likewise  Sidon  and  Tyre,  lay,  according  to  the  in- 
scriptions,  originally  upon  islands.^  At  some  period  Sidon 
must  have  had  the  supremacy.  The  native  name  of  the 
Phoenicians  is  Sidonians  (the  kings  of  Tyre  call  themselves 
kings  of  the  Sidonians  ;    Sidon  is  the  "  mother   of  Canaan '"'). 

^  Comp.  Stratonice  =  Ishtar,  see  Kattipf  tun  Babel  imd  Bibel ^  4th  ed.,  p.  35. 

-  When  Joiiah  went  out  against  the  Pharaoh  Necho,  it  was  to  be  e.xpected  Ihat 
he  would  try  to  stop  him  here  at  his  landing-place.  For  this  reason  Megiddo 
(battle  of  Megiddo  609-8,  death  of  Josiah)  may,  as  Winckler  assumes,  very  likely, 
be  a  misunderstanding  of  Migdol. 

^  When  Zimrida  of  Sidon  besieges  the  king  of  Tyre,  it  is  said  in  an  Amarna 
Letter  :   "  He  has  no  water  to  drink,  and  no  wood  for  fires." 


ßOUNDARIES    OF   ISRAEL-JUDAH  201 

Homer  also  calls  the  Phoenicians  Sidonians,  and  the  Old 
Testament  designates  by  Sidonim  the  state  which  united 
Tyre  and  Sidon.  Biit  probably  only  the  southern  group 
from  Beirut  is  meant.  The  two  parts  of  the  coast  district 
show  differences  of  dialect  to  the  present  day.  Gebal  and 
Arvad  show  a  certain  Isolation,  and  their  inhabitants  appear 
in  the  inscriptions  as  independent  tribes. 

At  the  period  of  the  Israel-Judah  state  Tyre  had  the  supremacy. 
Abi-ba'al  (about  980)  appears  as  a  contemporary  of  David. 
Hiram  I.,  who  subdued  Cyprus  and  built  the  city  of  Kart- 
hadasht  there,  was  contemporary  with  Solomon.  In  the  frag- 
ments  of  Menander  of  Ephesus,^  Hiram  appears  opposed  to 
Israel-Judah  in  the  same  position  as  later  Ben-hadad  of 
Damascus, 

The  Boimdaries  of  the  States  of  Israel-Judah ' 

A  natural  boundary  is  formed  to  the  north  by  Hermon,  300 
metres  high,  and  the  deep  hollow  of  the  Nähr  el-Kasimiyeh,  in 
its  Upper  reaches  called  Litani  (Eleutheros  of  the  Greeks). 
The  desert  bounds  the  east,  likewise  the  south.  The  Wadi  es 
Seba  comes  into  consideration  for  the  southern  boundary. 
This  is  the  "  stream  of  Egypt"  (nahal  Mizraim,  or  Muzri).^ 

The  record  of  the  conquest,  Joshua  xi.  16  f,  really  also 
names  as  northern  boundary  the  hollow  between  Lebanon  and 
Hermon  :  "  Ba'al  Gad  in  the  piain  {behi'k'-at)  of  Lebanon,  under 
Mount  Hermon '' ;  comp.  xiii.  5,  "  unto  the  entering  in  of 
Hamath,''  that  is,  the  hollow  between  Lebanon  and  Hermon, 
across  which  is  the  w^ay  to  Coele-Syria.  What  is  meant  is  the 
Hamath  lying  north  from  Galilee,  south  from  Hermon. 

The  Statement  of  the  boundary  in  Judges  xx.  1  and  1  Sani, 
iii.  20,  comp.  Gen.  xiv.  14,  agrees  with  this :  from  Dan  to 
Beersheba.  It  could  be  as  well  expressed  :  "  from  the  entering 
in  of  Hamath   to  the  stream  of  Egypt  (nahal  Muzri).''     The 

1  P.  104. 

-  Comp.  Buhl,  Geographie  Palästinas.  And  chiefly  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  249  ff. 
Also  Nagl,  Die  nachdavidische  Königsgeschichte. 

3  Winckler  takes  the  Wadi  el  Arish  for  the  southern  frontier.  because  Raphia, 
mentioned  by  Esarhaddon,  lies  there. 


202     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

late  iclea  took  it  to  mean  Syrian  Haniath,  and  added  also  to  it 
Zobah,  in  the  district  to  the  north,  instead  of  the  south,  of 
Damascus. 

The  proverbial  statenient,  "  from  Beersheba  to  Dan,'"  or, 
nahal  Muzii  to  " the  entering  in  of  Hamath,'"  also  gives  the 
boundaries  of  the  kingdoni  of  David  This  definition  of 
boundary  hes  at  the  root  of  the  n umbering  of  the  people, 
2  Sani.  xxiv.  5  ff.,  comp,  also  2  Kings  xiv.  25;  see  p.  213. 
When  David  had  subdued  Hadadezer  of  Zobah  and  the 
Arama?ans  of  Damascus,  2  Sam.  viii.,  Toi  of  Hamath  brought 
him  tribute  {shaal  shuhni).  Like  Philistia,  Moab  and  Amnion, 
the  people  beyond  the  northern  frontier,  acknowledge  the 
supremacy  of  the  kingdom  of  David.  Also  1  Kings  iv.  21 
really  gives  no  greater  extent  of  territory  to  Solomon.  The 
passage  is  spoilt  by  a  later  legendary  extension  of  the  kingdom 
of  David.  When  national  life  had  been  extinguished,  imagina- 
tion  drew  a  kingdom  of  David  extending  from  the  Nile  (instead 
of  nahal  Muzri)  to  nahar  Haggadol  (interpreted  as  Euphrates, 
instead  of  Eleutheros).^  The  pas.sage  runs  :  "(Solomon)  ruled 
over  all  kings  from  the  (great)  River  (Eleutheros),  over  the 
land  of  the  Philistines,  and  unto  W^^'^l'Ci  h^'2.1  (the  nahal  Muzri 
here  has  grown  to  the  River  of  Egypt,  the  Nile)." 

Even  Ezekiel,  xlvii.  15-17,  contents  himself  with  the  actual 
extent,  although  an  ideal  picture  is  being  given.  The  northern 
boundary  here  is  a  line  running  eastward  from  the  sea  through 
Hamath.  And  in  the  period  of  the  Maccabees,  the  actual 
boundary  was  still  recognised.  1  Macc.  xii.  24-34,  Jonathan 
leads  an  arniy  against  Demetrius,  "  and  came  against  them  in 
the  country  of  Hamath,  for  he  would  not  leave  him  time  to  set 
foot  in  his  country."  He  therefore  lays  claim  to  the  country 
named  in  Ezekiel.  Jonathan  defeats  the  enemy,  but  does  not 
pursue  them  "becau.se  they  had  goiie  over  the  river  Eleutheros"" 
{i.e.  Litani,  Nähr  el-Kasimiych.  He  turns  against  an  Arab 
sheikh  and  comes  into  the  country  of  Damascus  (he  had  there- 
fore crossed  one  of  the  pa.s.ses  leading  down  the  southern  slope 
of  Hermon). 

'  Eleutheros  is  certainly  sonie  kind  of  translation  of  the  surname  "  the  great 
(tlie  noble)." 


SOLOMON    AND    HIRAM  203 

Gen.  XV.  18  :  "  Unto  thy  foUowcrs  nill  I give  tliis  land  f'rom  the  nahal 
Mv^ri  unio  the  naJiar  Haggadol"  [i.e.  Eleuthei'os  ;  see  p.  202,  and  n.  1, 
below).  This  is  the  original  nieaning.  Deut.  i.  7  :  "  go  to  the  hill 
countri)  qf  the  Aviorifes  (i.e.  Hermon  and  tlie  southern  spurs  of 
Lebanon,  therefore  the  distvict  of  Haniath)  and  to  all.  the  places 
7iigh  tJieremtto  [gloss  :  in  the  Arabah,  and  in  the  hill  countvy,  and 
in  the  lowland  on  the  sea,  and  in  the  Neg-eb;,  in  the  land  of  the 
Canaanites]  and  Lebanon  as  far  the  greut  river  [gloss :  the  river 
Euphrates]."  The  original  meaning  is  :  they  shall  possess  the  land 
to  the  northern  frontier,  as  far  as  Hamath.' 

Joshua  i.  -i  confirnis  this  :  "fro}n  this  Lebanon  even  iinto  the  great 
river  [the  river  Euphrates]  !  " 

Solomou  and  Hirom  of  Tijre 

The  monunients  eive  us  nothino;  on  the  histories  of  Saul  and 
David.  The  Statements  about  SauPs  victories  over  surrounding 
enemies — Moab,  Amnion,  Aram-  bet  Rehob,  and  Zobah  (northern 
and  north-easterly  neighbours  of  Israel) — and  about  David''s 
victories  (over  the  Israelites,  2  Sam.  viii.  2 ;  over  the  Pbilistines 
'■'  from  Gath  even  unto  the  sea,"  viii.  1  [.^]  ),  over  Hadad  'Ezer  of 
Zobah  (2  Sam.  x.)  and  his  allies,  Beth-Rehob,  king  of  Ma'acah 
( =  Geshur)  and  the  men  of  Tob  (comp.  Judges  xi.  3,  5),  corre- 
spond  to  the  actual  circumstances  of  the  time.  David  freed  the 
land  east  of  Jordan  from  the  encroaching  Aramajans.  For  this 
reason  To'ii  of  Hamath^  made  him  presents. 

For  the  stories  of  Solomon  we  are  not  dependent  only  upon 
the  Biblical  records.  How  offen  in  Oriental  history  the  great 
builder  follow,-^  the  conc[ueror !  What  the  Bible  records  of 
Solomon,  Menander  of  Ephesus,  who  had  access  to  the 
Tyrian  annals  of  the  temple  of  Melkart,  relates  of  Hiram, 
contemporary  of  Solomon,  and  of  his  father  Abiba'al. 
As  Solomon  beautifled  Jerusalem,  so  these  tvvo  beautified 
Tyre,  by  fine  buildings.  In  the  fragments  of  Menander, 
whose  "  Greek  and  barbaric  stories "  were  aware  alike  of 
the  writings  of  Berossus  of  Babylon  and  Manetho  of  Egypt, 
Solomon  is  mentioned,  and  in  the  sense  of  a  Tyrian  polemic 

1  Buhl's  explanation,  loc.  dt.,  p.  65,  accordingly  falls  to  the  giound. 
-  To  be  read  thus,  instead  of  Edom,  with  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  i.  143  ;  upon 
the  following,  comp.  ii.  206  ff. 
■'  See  above. 


204     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

against  the  late-Biblical  representatioii  of  the  wisdom  of 
Soloiiion.  Solomon  is  wise  in  solving  problenis,  but  |iirani  is 
wiser !  ^  In  another  important  circumstance  the  Biblical  relation 
must  even  be  corrected  in  favour  of  Hiram.  1  Kings  ix.  lli, 
Solomon  had  to  give  up  to  Hirani  twenty  cities  in  Galilee,  and 
make  a  monej  payment ;  xi.  5,  Solomon  favours  the  cult  of 
Ashtoreth  of  Tvre.  Both  these  things  betray  the  fact  that 
Solomon  was  a  vassal  of  Tyre.-  Also  the  mutual  commercial 
enterprises  are  liints  that  Solomon  was  under  Obligation  to 
^iram.  Hiram  had  no  havens  upon  the  Red  Sea,  and  used 
Solomon's  port  Eziongeber.  According  to  1  Kings  ix.  27,  Solo- 
mon had  to  supply  ships  and  men.  The  few  men  supplied  by 
I^iram  wei-e  probably  overseers.-^ 

Division  of  the  Kingdom 

The  death  of  Solomon  was  the  seal  to  the  fall  of  David's 
kingdom.  But  the  "division  of  the  kingdom  ""  was  certainly 
not  the  result  of  internal  strife  only.  External  powers  had 
assuredly  some  band  in  it. 

In  the  first  place,  the  Pharaoh  Shoskenk  would  be  interested 
in  weakening  the  mightiest  of  the  Syrian  states.  After  the 
period  of  weakness,  as  we  find  evidence  in  the  Golenischeff 
papyrus,  Egypt  again  began  to  occupy  herseif  over  the  question 
of  supremacy  in  Canaan.  The  marriage  of  Solomon  with  the 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  Psusennes  IL,  last  ruler  of  the  Tanitic 
dynasty,  for  whoni  a  wonderful  palace  was  built,  had  a  political 
reason."*  In  the  history  of  Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  who  was 
brought  up  in  the  court  of  the  Pharaoh,  and  who,  according  to 
a  tradition  which  appears  in  the  LXX.  of  1  Kings  xii.  24,  was 

'  Comp,  with  this,  pp.  i8S  f. 

2  Windeier,  K.A.T.,  yd  ed.,  237. 

•'  In  I  Kings  ix.  28  and  x.  22,  gold,  ivory,  kophapes  (according  to  Ed.  Glaser, 
köphhii  is  frankincense)  and  negroes  are  named  as  merchandise.  If  Ophir  also 
was  an  Arabian  port,  the  reference  is  to  African  merchandise  ;  see  K.A.  T. ,  3rd  ed., 
239;  Niebuhr,  O.L.Z.,  1900,  69. 

•*  Since  Solomon  received  as  dowry  Gezer,  which  tili  then  had  been  independent 
(i  Kings  ix.  16  f.),  the  allusion  here  is  undoubtedly  to  Egypt,  and  not  to  Muzri  (as 
Winckler  will  have  it  in  Helmolt's  IVeltgesch.,  iii.  197).  Solomon  made  good  his 
claim  upon  Gezer  with  Pharaoh.  The  event  can  be  illustrated  by  similar  pro- 
ceedings  in  the  Amarna  Letters. 


DIVISION    OF   THE    KINGDOM  205 

married  to  a  sister-in-law  of  Pharaoh,  we  find  traces  of  the 
recognised  Egyptian  policj,  of  dallying  with  aspirants  to  the 
throne  of  allied  states.  Also  the  dependence  of  Solomon  upon 
Tyre  must  have  taken  place  with  Egyptian  aid.  The  rulers  of 
the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates  preferred  having  the  snmll  vassal 
states  in  dependence  upon  each  other.  This  simplified  the 
levying  of  tribute.  The  position  of  Rehoboam  still  remains 
obscure.  We  know  froni  1  Kings  xv.  18  f.  that  he  relied  upon 
Damascus.^  It  appears  that  he  tried  to  shake  off  Tyrian  and 
at  the  same  time  Egyptian  supremacy  when  he  sought  the 
connection  with  "■  the  adversaiy,  whom  God  had  raised  up 
against  his  father  Solomon  "  (1  Kings  xi.  23).-  Damascus  had 
certainly  already  been  at  Avork  behind  the  scenes  in  the  wars 
between  Jeroboam  and  Rehoboam,  and  \vas  tertius  gaudens  in 
the  dividing  of  the  kingdom.  The  hegemony  amongst  the 
minor  states  of  the  "' Westland "  passed  over  to  Damascus. 
With  the  overthrow  of  Israel,  Damascus  also  obtained  a  com- 
mercial  road  to  the  Phoenician  seaports  open  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  likewise  across  the  piain  of  Esdraelon  to  the  Philistine 
seaport  cities. 

After  Rehoboam  had  refused  at  Sichem,  where  he  wished  to 
establish  a  supremacy  over  North  Canaan,  to  withdraw  certain 
laws  made  by  his  father  (1  Kings  xii.),  the  northern  confederacy 
of  Sichem  revolted.  Egypt  joined  (1  Kings  xiv.  25)  in 
favour  of  Jeroboam.  Shishak  sacked  Jerusalem,  and  proposed 
to  found  a  kingdom  which  would  unite  under  one  scepti'e  North 
Canaan  "  from  Bethel  unto  Dan  "  and  the  land  east  of  Jordan, 
and  for  this  Rehoboam's  only  Obligation  was  to  support  the 
policy  of  Egypt  in  Asia.^ 

With  this  Jerusalem  sank  into  the  position  of  a  city 
kingdom,  as  it  was  in  the  Amarna  period.  Rehoboam's  second 
son  Asa  (see  n.  1 ,  below)  appears  to  have  succeeded  in  shaking  off 

^  Asa  was  the  second  son  of  Rehoboam  ;  brother,  not  son  (as  i  Kings  xv.  8 
erroneously  states),  of  Abijam. 

^  "  I  willchastise  you  withscorpions"  (i  Kings  xii.  ii);comp.  p.  191.  Behind 
this  Claim  Stands  not  Jeroboam  only,  but  certainly  Egypt  also  ;  comp.  p.  206. 

^  At  this  period  we  hear  nothing  of  Tyre.  The  notification  according  to 
which  Abdashtoreth  ('A|85o(rTopTos  in  Menander)  was  murdered  by  the  "  four 
sons  of  his  nurse,"  shows  that  it  was  occupied  with  internal  wars. 


206     POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JÜDAH 

the  interference  of  Egypt.  The  chronicles  leport  a  victory  over 
the  Cushite  Zerah  (2  Chron.  xiv.  8  ff'.).  He  drove  back  an 
Egyptian  or  Arab  tribute-levying  army.  Then  he  sought  Sup- 
port froni  Dama.scus.  He  sends  tribute,  and  reminds  Ben-hadad 
of  an  alliance  that  his  fatlier  had  niade  with  Ben-hadad^s  father. 
He  prays  for  help  against  his  foe  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  who  had 
deposed  Nadab,  the  son  of  Jeroboam,  and  sought  to  break  the 
treaty  that  existed  between  Israel  and  Damascus.  This  in 
reality  means :  he  placed  himself  under  the  ruler  of  Damascus 
as  a  vassal,  and  tlius  took  the  })osition  alreadv  held  before  by 
Israel.  Ben-hadad  acceded  with  pleasure  to  the  prayer,  which 
meant  that  he  assumed  supreniacy  over  the  long-desired  territory 
east  of  Jordan  :  Ijon  and  Dan  and  Abel-beth-Maacha  and 
Kinneroth,  together  with  the  whole  land  of  Naphtali  (1  Kings 
XV.  20).  Thus  Damascus  acquired  a  legal  claim  to  tliis  terri- 
tory, and  in  consequence,  in  733,  Tiglath-Pileser  included  it 
when  he  made  Damascus  into  an  Assyrian  province.^  From 
thenceforward  Israel  was  forced  to  maintain  a  standing  army 
at  the  disposal  of  Damascus.  The  Commander,  Omri,  owed  his 
elevation  to  the  kingshi})  to  the  ascendancy  of  the  army. 

Israel  and  Judah  to  the  Fall  of  kSamaria 

AVith  Omri  begins  a  new  period  for  Canaan.  There  is 
silenco  about  his  acts,  but  the  deficiency  is  supplied  by  the 
Mesha  Stone,  which  gives  evidence  of  the  subjugation  of  Moab 
under  Omri.  He  sought  union  with  the  north,  such  as  David 
had  once  accomplished  with  the  south.  Documentary  evidence 
of  his  epoch-making  appearance  is  given  by  the  circumstance 
that  Assyrian  diplomacy  called  Israel  mat  Humri,  bit  Huniri(a).' 
Judah  not  being  mentioned  in   Assyrian  annals  tili  the  time  of 

'  From  this  limo  Damascus  advanced  step  by  step.  In  i  Kings  xx.  34  wc 
leain  that  under  Omri  Ben-hadad  took  posscssion  of  more  cities,  and  opened 
bazaars  (naturally  with  privilege  for  the  commerce  of  Damascus)  in  the  newly 
founded  Samaria.  In  any  case,  that  was  the  stipulated  reward  for  the  help  given 
to  the  usurper  Omri  in  his  seizure  of  the  throne.  Omri  theo  tried,  as  a  wise 
poütician,  to  counlerbalance  the  dangerous  Damascene  "  friendship  "  by  alliance 
with  Tyre. 

^  Also  Jehu,  the  usurper  supported  by  Assyria,  is  called  "the  son  of  Omri" 
(mar  IJumri).  Ahab  is  still  called  SirVai  ;  later  in  the  Assyrian  incriptions  mar 
yumri  signifies  "  Israelile." 


ISRAEL    AND   JUDAH  207 

Jotham  and  Ahaz,  is  simply  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  a  vassal 
State  of  Israel.  Where  Israel  is  mentioned,  the  inclusion  of 
Judah  goes  withoat  saying.  Oniri  allied  himself  with  Ithobaal 
of  Tyre.  The  raarriage  of  his  son  Ahab  \vith  Ithobaars  daughter 
Jezebel  was  of  political  importance.  And  the  political  union 
meant  recognition  of  the  religion.  It  brought  the  religion  of 
Ba'al  from  Tyre  into  Israel.  Ahab  was  then  able  to  venture 
open  enmity  with  Damascus  (1  Kings  xx.  ff.).  The  following 
wars,  in  which  Israel  was  certainly  supported  by  Tyre,  and  in 
\\  liich  Judah  was  occasionally  obliged  to  supply  an  army,  had 
varying  results,  but  the  dependence  of  Israel  upon  Damascus  ^ 
was  not  finally  broken,  for  we  soon  after  find  Ahab  fighting 
against  Assyria  amongst  the  certainly  compulsory  followers  of 
Ben-hadad."  Meantime  danger  approached  the  powerful  Ara- 
mtean  state  of  Damascus  fi-om  the  side  of  the  Assyrian  king- 
dom.  Since  the  time  of  Asurnazirpal  one  of  the  chief  aims  of 
the  policy  of  Assyria  was  "  the  road  to  the  sea,"  a  free  passage 
to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  for  commerce  and  armies.^  To  this 
end  Damascus  had  to  be  subjugated,  and  with  its  possession 
was  included  the  disposal  of  the  small  nations  of  the  district 
east  of  Jordan.  A  party  friendly  to  Assyria  soon  formed 
itself  in  Israel,  which  hoped  for  freedom  from  the  yoke  of 
Damascus  by  means  of  the  powerful  empire. 

Probably  under  Omri  Israel  had,  for  the  first  time,  to  deal 
directly  with  Assyria.  From  thenceforward  the  Israelite  court 
had  to  keep  in  touch  with  Assyrian  e\ents.  We  may  assume 
that  Israel,  that  is  to  say  Judah,  maintained  ambassadors  at  the 
court  of  Nineveh.  New  light  is  thrown  upon  the  story  of 
Jonah's  mission,  even  if  it  only  indicates  an  historical  dressing 
up  of  a  didactic  writing.  How  did  the  union  of  interests 
between    Israel  and  Assyria  arise  ?     Tyre  and  Sidon  had  paid 

1  The  intellectual  superiovity  of  the  kingdom  of  Damascus  over  Israel-Judah 
is  attested  by  Arnos  iii.  12,  and  perhaps  also  2  Kings  xvi.  10  f ,  where  Ahaz  sends 
the  pattern  of  an  altar  from  Damascus  to  Jerusalem. 

-  Ahab  goes  with  Jehoshaphat  to  the  Jabbok  (i  Kings  xxii.  3),  to  rend  Ramoth 
Gilead  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Damascenes.  Incidentally,  Iherefore,  the  power 
of  Damascus  reached  so  far !  The  friendship  between  Jehoshaphat  and  Ahab 
signifies  nothing  more  here  than  the  relationship  of  vassalage  of  Judah  towards 
Israel. 

^  Comp.  pp.  319,  i.  ff.,  and  fig.  96  f. 


^08     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

tribute  to  A.^uvnazirpal  during  the  last  years  of  bis  reign  over 
North  Phoenician  countries.  Tbe  Phoenician  cities  would  not 
have  done  this  unwillingly  so  long  as  they  bad  to  suffer  froni 
the  oppression  of  the  too-powerful  Damascus.^  In  the  close 
connection  then  existing  between  Tyre  and  Israel,  it  is  more 
than  likely  that  Oniri  determined  to  send  tribute  and  do  homage 
even  if  it  were  not  included  in  the  homage  due  to  Tyre  as  bis 
overlord.  But  Israel  is  first  expressly  mentioned  by  the  royal 
tablet-writers  ander  the  son  and  successor  of  Asurnazirpal. 

After  Shalmaneser  IL  (860-825)  had  brought  Babylon  under 
bis  rule,  he  armed  for  the  "  march  to  the  sea,"  as  the  "  Eponym 
Canon ""  says. 

Whilst  bis  father  had  avoided  a  conflict  with  Damascus,  a 
powerful  Opponent  appeared  against  Shalmaneser  in  855  in  the 
person  of  Bir-'idri  of  Damascus.  He  concluded  a  defensive 
alliance  with  Irhuleni  of  Hamath  in  which  Israel  (with  Judab) 
was  obliged  to  unite.  This  confederacv  '^  is  traditionallv  called 
the  Damascene-Hamathite  cities'  confederacy.  Ahab  of  Israel 
is  mentioned  in  the  inscription  of  Shalmaneser  as  A-ha-ab-bu 
Sir-i'-la-ai,-^  and  it  is  said  that  he  took  part  with  ten  thousand 
men  and  two  thousand  chariots."*  Shalmaneser  records  in  an 
inscription  on  a  monolith  °  fuller  detail  of  the  campaign  of  the 
year  854.  A  battle  took  place  in  the  northern  district  of 
Hamath,  near  Qarqar,  the  royal  city  of  Irhuleni,  on  the  Orontes 
(Arantu).  The  real  aim,  the  overthrow  of  Damascus,  was  not 
attained.  The  king  of  Damascus  remained  independent  and  also 
retained  feudal  supremacy  over  Israel.  The  second  Assyrian 
attempt  in  the  year  849  had  a  like  result,  and  also  the  third,  in 

'  After  the  fall  of  Damascus  the  Phoenician  states  ventured  to  resist  Assyria. 

-  The  number  of  the  allies  is  uncertain  ;  the  inscription  says  twelve,  but  counts 
eleven.  Is  this  also  an  intentional  rounding  off  in  the  sense  spoken  of  p.  43, 
n.  5  ?  The  thirty-two  in  i  Kings  xx.  i  is  founded  upon  an  error  \Thich  has  arisen 
from  twenty-tvvo  and  thirty-one. 

'  Upon  the  vvriting  of  the  name  =  Hebrew,  Israel,  see  Winckler,  K.A.T.,  ßrd 
ed.,  p.  247. 

■•  Whilst  the  Damascene  tradition  is  missing,  we  niust  renounce  the  idea  of  any 
clear  survey  of  the  political  relalionship  of  that  time  being  possible.  The  annals 
of  Shalmaneser  give  us  the  most  valuable  Information.  In  the  Biblical  records 
of  the  Books  of  the  Kings  naturally  Israelite  events  take  the  most  prominent 
place,  and  in  consequence  relatively  trivial  events  appear  as  chief  facts. 

•"  K.  'f.,  and  ed.,  pp.  14  ff. 


ISRAEL   AND    ASSYRIA  209 

the  year  84-6,  in  spite  of  the  assurance  :  "  I  conquered  Adad'idri 
and  his  vassals."'  There  i.s  only  a  fragment  of  truth  in  the 
assertion,  in  tliat  he  niust  somehow  have  managed  to  isolate 
Daniascus,  and  to  set  free  the  vassals,  amongst  theni  Ahab  of 
Israel.  This  is  shown  bv  the  next  campaign  in  the  year  842, 
vvhere  we  find  the  king  of  Damascus  without  alHes.  It  would 
not  have  been  diflficult  to  inake  the  vassals  remiss  in  their  aid 
against  Assyria.  Ben-hadad  had  drawn  upon  himself  the 
enmity  of  the  vassals.  The  passage  1  Kings  xx.  24  ^  betrays 
that  he  had  made  an  attempt  to  put  aside  the  kings  of  the 
vassal  states  and  to  set  Damascene  governors  in  their  places. 
The  wars  of  Ahab  against  Ben-hadad,  related  by  the  Bible, 
certainly  indicate  the  reaction  against  this  attempted  discipline. 
Under  such  circumstances  an  Assyrian  party  niight  have  formed 
itself  for  the  first  time  in  Israel.  It  is  very  probable  that  the 
prophet  Elisha  was  the  intellectual  leader  of  these  friends  of 
Assyria.  It  is  undoubted  that  the  forcible  change  of  throne  in 
Israel  is  connected  with  the  forniation  of  this  party.  Jehu  prob- 
ably  carried  out  his  coup  cTefat  under  Assyrian  protection.  The 
succeeding  events  show  that  he  feit  himself  bound  to  the  king 
of  Assyj'ia.  It  is  similar  to  what  happened  later,  under  Pekah. 
An  Assvrian  party  overthrew  the  king,  and,  in  gratitude  for 
help  rendered,  the  new  king  acknowledged  Assyrian  supremacy. 

In  the  dissolution  of  vassalage  most  probably  the  change  of 
throne  in  Damascus  also  played  a  part.  When  in  842  the 
Assyrian  army  appeared,  the  powerful  Ben-hadad  was  no  longer 
living.  Hazael — Assyrian  inscriptions  write  him  as  IJaza-'ilu — 
was  king  in  his  stead.  The  Bible  records  the  change  of  throne 
for  US,  2  Kings  viii.  9-15. 

The  cuneiform  written  record-  of  the  campaign  of  Shal- 
maneser  against  l^aza-'ilu  says  : 

Passage  from  an  Inscription  (of  the  Year  842) 

In  the  eighteenth  year  of  my  reign  I  passed  for  the  sixteenth 
time  over  the  Euphrates.  Hazael  of  Damascus  relied  upon  the 
number  of  his  troops,  and  called  out  his  troops  in  multitudes.     He 

1  The  authenticity  of  the  passage  has  been,  in  our  opinion,  wrongfully  doubted. 
"  Ä'.  T.,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  20  ft'. 

VOL.   JI.  14 


210     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 


made  the  Saniru,'  u  hill  top  opjjosite  Lebanon,  his  tbrtress.  I  fought 
and  conquered  liiiu.  I  slew  6000  of  his  warriors  with  the  sword  ; 
I  took  from  him  1121  of  his  chariots  of  war^ 
470  of  his  war-horses,  and  his  camp.  He 
Hed  to  save  his  hfe.  I  pursued  him,  and 
shiit  him  up  in  Damascus,  his  chief  city. 
,./;  I    hewed  down  his  parks,  and  advanced  as 

far  as  the  hüls  of  Hanran.  I  destroyed, 
devastated,  and  burned  ninnberless  eitles, 
and  led  away  captives  innumerable.  I  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  the  hüls  of  Ba'li-ra'si,  a  pro- 
montory,  and  placed  my  ro}al  statiie  there.'- 
Then  I  took  tribute  from  the  Tyrians, 
Sidonians,  and  Jana',  the  son  of  Omri. 

Obelisk  Inscription  over  the  Reliefs 

Tribute  of  Jehu,  the  son  of  Omri :  bars 
of  silver  and  gold,  shapln  of  gold,  ziiqül  of 
gold,  goblets  (?)  of  gold,  buckets  (?)  of  gold, 
bars  of  lead,  Jiutartu  (wooden  articles  I)  for 
the  hand  of  the  king,  piirumliäti  ^  (wooden 
articles  I)  did  I  receive  from  him. 

In  842  Shalmaneser  also  passed  over 
Lebanon  without  Opposition,  and  ad- 
vanced to  the  sea-coast,  like  his  forefather 
engraved  his  statne  on  the  pioinontoi'v 
of  the  river,  and  then  sought  to  seize 
lipon  Damascus  from  the  west.  Hazael 
barred  his  way  at  the  mountain  pass 
between     Hernion    (Saniru)^   and    anti- 

FiG.  167. —Black  Obelisk  of  Lebanon,  but  h'nally  was  obliged  to  fall 
Shaiinaneser  IL,  represent-  ,       1  t-x  rpii         •.  j 

ing  aniongst  other  things  ^^^"^^  "P«"  Damascus.  The  citj  proved 
the  payment  of  tribute  by  impregiiable.  Shalmanessr  had  to  con- 
Tehu  of  Israel.  tc      •■1  ,•        i  •  ,i 

tent  himseli  with  venting  his  wrath  lipon 

the    gardens    and    palm    groves,^  which   then,  like  to-day,  siir- 

'  Hermon  (comp.  Deut.  iii.  9)  :  tj:;'. 

-  On  the  Nähr  el  Kelb,  see  p.  196,  n.  i,  and  comp.  p.  320,  i. 

•''  Or  budilhäti  (root  from  which  bedolah,  pine,  conies  ?). 

"•  See  note  i,  above. 

'"  According  to  Deut.  x.x.  19  it  was  forbidden  to  cut  down  fruit  trees  in  a  siege. 
In  2  Kings  iii.  19,  nevertheless,  Elisha  advises  to  cut  down  all  fruit  trees  in  Moab 
and  to  stop  all  the  fountains.  In  times  of  peace  great  havoc  was  made  in  the 
cedar  mountains.  See  fig.  104,  and  compare  the  lament  of  the  i>rophet 
llabakkuk  ii.  17,  Isa.  xiv.  8,  and  the  remarks  upon  i  Kings  v.  6,  p.  187. 


ISRAEL   AND    ASSYRIA 


211 


rounded  Damascus ;  he  barbarously  devastated  the  whole  neigh- 
bourhood  as  far  as  Hauvan.  This  victory  brought  about  a 
reaction  in  the  minds  of  the  minor  states,  which  had  forinerly 


Fig.  i6S. — A  representation  on  the  obelisk  üf  Shalmaneser  II. 
The  tribute  of  Jehu  of  Israel. 

been  va.ssals  of  the  .state  of  Damascus.  The  Assyrian  party 
gained  adherents  everywhere.  Together  with  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
Jehu  also,  king  of  Israel  (Ja-u-a  apil  Humri),  with  his  sub- 
vassal  Judah,  brought  tribute. 


Fig.   169. — A  rciiie-cnt;ition  on  the  ^  :     >.     . 
Tribute  of  Jehu  of  Israel. 


laneser  II. 


This  fragment  of  tribute  is  illustrated  upon  the  obelisks 
of  Shalmaneser.  Jehu's  deputation  is  made  known  by  the 
annotations.  We  have  therefore  in  the  sculptures  reproduced 
(figs.  167  to  169)  the  oldest  representation  of  Israelite 
figures.  Above  fig.  168  are  the  words,  "  Tribute  of  Jehu,  the 
son  of  Omri." 


212     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

Accordiiicr  to  2  Kings  viii.,  Elisha  -was  in  his  prophetic  calling 
also  a  deliberate  politician.^  He  had  a  band  in  the  change  of 
thi-one  in  Damascus,  he  led  the  overthrow  of  the  house  of  Omri 
in  Israel.  The  motives,  which  are  not  clearly  recognisable  froni 
the  fragments  of  the  traditions  of  the  Books  of  the  Kings^,  are 
naturally  to  be  looked  for  on  religious  groiuids.  Possibly 
already  then,  the  worshippers  of  Yahveh^  as  thej-  did  later  in 
the  period  of  the  Babylonian  exile,  sought  alliance  Avith  the 
intellectual  leaders  of  Assyria,  or  rather  of  BaMlonia,  in  tlie 
interests  of  religion. 

The  boastful  representation  of  the  tribute-paying  of  Palestme 
cannot  deceive  us  over  the  doubtful  results  obtained  by  Shal- 
maneser.  In  the  next  campaign  also,  of  839,- he  did  not  succeed 
in  conquering  Daniascus. 

Inscription  on  the  Obelisk  (of  the  Year  839) 

In  the  twenty-first  year  of  my  reign  I  passed  over  the  Euphrates 
for  the  twenty-first  time.  I  marched  against  the  cities  of  Hazael 
of  Damascus.  I  conquered  four  of  his  cities.  I  took  tribute  from 
the  Tyrians,  Sidonians,.  Byblians. 

Jehu,  therefore,  was  not  amongst  them.  Hazael  had  made 
use  of  the  intervening  time  to  punish  Israel  and  its  dependent 
Judah  for  its  Assyrian  inclinations,  and  to  bring  it  again  under 
his  rule.  This  is  recorded  in  2  Kings  xii.  IT  fF.  In  the 
punitary  campaign,  which  reached  to  Jerusalem  and  Philistia, 
he  must  have  raged  murderously,  as  2  Kings  viii.  12  shows. 
Arnos  i.  3  still  recalls  with  terror  the  horrors  of  the  devastation, 
and  records  the  judgment  of  God,  which  then  as  punishment 
overtook  Daniascus.  Jehu  and  his  son  Jehoahaz  were  unwillingly 
forced  to  return  under  Damascus.  We  recognise  it  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  last  campaign  of  Shalmaneser  against  Damascus 
in  839,  in  which  four  Damascene  cities  were  conquered,  Jehu 
does  not  appear  amongst  those  paying  tribute  (Gebal,  Sidon, 
and  Tyre). 

At  length,  after  839,  Shalmaneser  abandoned  the  attempt  to 
win   a  way  to  the    Mediterranean    through    Syria.       The    last 

'  Upon  this  political  importance  of  the  prophets,  conipare  Wincklcr,  Ex  or. 
lux,  ii.  I,  24  ff. 

-  Betsveen  S42  and  839  thcre  were  some  expeditions  to  the  Amanus  to  fetcli 
Wood  for  building. 


ISRAEL    AND   ASSYRIA  213 

campaign  went  towards  Tarsus,  therefore  sought  a  passage  to 
the  sea  over  the  Cilician  Pass. 

Shalmaneser's  successors  ^  did  very  little  in  the  Westland; 
they  were  otherwise  occupied.  On  the  contrary,  Adad-nirari  III. 
(812-783)  records,  upon  one  of  the  small  inscriptions  we  have  pre- 
served  from  hini,-  that  he  overcame  the  coast-lands  of  Tyre, 
Sidon,  Omri  (and  Edom,  and  Phihstia),  and  imposed  tribute  upon 
them,  then  he  besieged  King  Mari  (that  is,  probably,  Ben-hadad 
III. )  in  Damascus.  He  therefore,  following  Shahnaneser's  lead, 
had  attenipted,  in  the  first  place,  to  isolate  Damascus.  This 
campaign,  which  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz,  and  may 
be  placed  about  803,  signified  for  Israel  a  change  from  Damascene 
supremacy  to  Assyrian.  The  Assyrian  party  celebrate  Adad- 
nirari  III.  as  the  Deliverer.  "  Yahveh  gave  a  saviour,"  it  is 
Said  in  2  Kiugs  xiii.  5.  The  rescue  from  the  yoke  of  Damascus 
is  meant.  The  later  Jewish  edition  took  exception  to  this,  and 
expunged  the  name  of  Adad-nirari.  But  he  clearly  helped  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  to  it.s  old  standing,  which  it  had  lost  through 
the  Damascene  campaign  of  vengeance,  indicated  2  Kings  viii.  12. 
In  this  sense  the  trial  still  continued  under  Jehoabaz^s  succes.sor 
Joash  ;  2  Kings  xiii.  25  speaks  of  the  results  which  Joash  had 
attained.^ 

The  successors  of  Adad-nirari  ^  could  only  retain  the  results 
in  the  VVestland  with  difficulty.  In  particular,  a  revolution 
whicli  iiivolved  the  whole  of  Assyria,  in  the  year  763,  called 
away  the  attention  of  the  Assyrian  king  from  the  distant  vassal 
lands.      Damascus  was  able  again  to  shake  oft' the  Assyrian  yoke. 

^  Ashurdanin-apli,  and  Shamshi-Adad. 

-  K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  22  f.  There  it  should  say  :  "  Rammaniraii,  who  has  been 
endowed  from  childhood  by  Aähur  with  a  kingdom  unequalled  [wa///  katushii, 
speaking  exactly,  '  to  fiU  the  band,' see  fig.  1S7,  p.  274],  and  whose  pastorate  he 
made  like  unto  a  vine  and  plant  of  life  (comp.  Ps.  xxiii.)  for  the  people  of  Ashur. " 

^  2  Kings  xiv.  25  the  Situation  is  again  mentioned,  and  there  it  speaks  of  a 
division  of  territory  which  had  been  at  one  time  given  iip  to  Damascus  and  then 
won  back  again.  The  successful  issue  was  foretold  by  Jonah  ben  Amitai. 
Winckler  {K.A.T.,  jrd  ed.,  260,  262;  comp.  Ex  01:  lux,  ii.  i)  is  inclined  to 
link  the  historic  kernel,  or  better,  background  of  the  Book  of  Jonah,  with  this  ;  at 
the  same  time,  naturally,  giving  up  his  former  vievv  {F.,  ii.  160  ff.),  accordino-  to 
which,  contrary  to  Budde,  he  disputes  the  identification  of  the  two  Jonahs. 

■*  Shalmaneser  III.,  782-773,  who  any  way  in  the  last  years  of  hi?  reign 
appeared  before  Damascus,  Asurdan  772-755,  Asur-nirari  754-745. 


214     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

That  at  this  period  Israel  was  not  again  forced  into  the  old 
feudal  relation  to  Damascus,  was  owing  to  the  strong  rule 
of  Jeroboam  IL  (T85-745),  who  reinstated  the  old  boundaries 
"  from  where  it  entereth  Haniath,  to  the  sea  of  the  Arabah " 
(2  Kings  xiv.  25).^  His  successors,  Menahem  (Me-ni-hi-im-nie 
alu  Sa-me-ri-na-ai)  and  Pekahiah  (Pa-ka-ha),  partly  froni 
individual  policy,  partly  from  fear  that  the  overthrow  of 
Damascus  might  also  mean  their  downfall,  again  joined  with 
Damascus.  In  the  last  year  of  Jeroboam  the  mighty  Tiglath- 
Pileser  III.,-  or  Pul  ^  (745-727),  ascended  the  throne  of  Assyria. 
He  seized  the  power  as  leader  of  a  movement,  organised  in 
Kalah,  which  was  directed  against  the  hierarchy.  This  Pul 
Stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  flourishing  period  of  the 
Assyrian  empire ;  he  extended  the  Assyrian  power  in  the 
Westland  as  none  of  his  predecessors  had  done,  and  annihilated 
the  Aramaic  kingdom  of  Damascus.  Unfortunately,  his  annals, 
and  amongst  them  specially  the  records  of  the  wars  in  the  west, 
have  only  come  to  us  in  a  niutilated  condition.  It  is  well  that 
we  have  the  annotation  of  the  Assyrian  Eponym  Canon  upon 
the  chief  events  of  the  year,  and  the  statements  of  the 
Babylonian  Chronicle,  which  begins  with  the  year  747.  AVhat 
is  recorded,  2  Kings  xvi.,  of  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom  of 
Damascus,  entirelv  agrees,  as  was  remarked  previously,  with  the 
statements  of  the  tablet-writers  to  the  Assyrian  king.  When 
Pul  assumed  the  government,  the  states  of  Palestine  were  as 
independent  of  Assvria  as  they  were  in  the  time  of  Shalmaneser  IL 
Israel  (and  Judah)  held,  as  has  been  said,  with  Damascus.  But 
even  in  the  first  years  of  his  reign,  as  soon  as  he  had  made  his 
rule  over  Babvlonia  secure.  Pul  turned  his  special  attention  to 

^  Upon  the  boundaries,  see  pp.  201  ff.  The  mutilated  passage  iiiv.  2S  seems  to 
contain  the  announcement  that  he  brought  Hamath  back  to  Israel,  defeated 
Damascus,  and  secured  the  ascendancy  over  Judah;  see  Winckler  in  A'.A.'/'., 
3rd  ed.,  p.  262. 

-  The  Eible  repeatedly  vvrites  his  name  thus,  also  the  Pananimü  inscription 
from  Zenjirli  has  it  exactly  the  same  (see  Ausgrabungen  in  Seudschir/i,  published 
by  the  Orient-Komitee  in  Berlin,  i.  55  ff. 

'■'■  This  is  his  Babylonian  name.  The  Babylonian  list  of  kings  calls  the  name 
Pulü,  the  chronicle  says  Tukulti-apil-esharra.  When  the  Ptolemaic  Canon  names 
him  as  Porös,  king  of  Babylon,  this  is  the  same  phonetic  change  as  in  »lar-gah'ttu 
("child  of  the  sea"  =  pearl)  and  Margaret  (F.  E.  Peiser). 


ISRAEL   AND   ASSYRIA  215 

the  west.  Before  all,  he  had  to  bring  the  kingdom  of  Arpad 
in  central  Syria,  which  had  already  given  trouble  to  his  pre- 
decessor,  Assur-narari,  into  complete  subjection.  It  cut  him  ofF, 
in  the  then  arrangement  of  the  political  Situation,^  from  the 
ports  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  And  these  ports  were  the 
desire  of  the  great  Assyrian  king,  who  had  here  to  renew  old 
Claims.  For  the  years  743-740  the  Eponym  Canon  shows 
campaigns  against  Arpad.  In  the  year  741  "he  marched  to 
xArpad  for  three  years  as  conqueror."  2  Kings  xix.  11  ff.  reflects 
a  memory  of  this  victorious  campaign.  The  state  of  Arpad 
became  an  Assyrian  province  in  740.  Daniascus  also,  and  the 
other  Syrian  states,  next  anxiously  sent  tribute.^  But  no  sooner 
had  Pul  turned  towards  the  north,  to  enlarge  his  boiindaries 
there,  than  the  Syro-Palestinian  states  again  attempted  to  free 
theniselves  from  Assyria.  Damascus  again  took  the  lead.  As 
soon,  hoM'ever,  as  the  Assyrian  king  appeared  in  the  neighbour- 
hood,^  Re/in  ^  of  Damascus,  Menahem  of  Israel,  and  the  other 
confederates  paid  him  homage.  Here  also  Judah  is  simply  an 
appendage  to  Israel."  But  the  obedience  was  only  in  appear- 
ance.  As  soon  as  Pul  turned  away,  the  confederacy  again 
Consolidated  under  Damascus.  Whilst  Pekah  of  Israel,  like 
his  predecessor  Menahem,  again  took  part,  Judah,  tili  now  the 
sub-vassal  of  Israel,  hesitated  to  make  the  resolution.  Here 
for  the  first  time  Judah  appears  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  by 
name.  King  Ahaz  of  Judah  (Ja-u-ha-zi  Jaudai)''  decided  for 
Assyria.  His  father,  Jotham,  seems  already  to  have  been  inclined 
to  join  himself  to  the  Assyrian  power.  He  also  would  certainly 
have  done  homage  to  Pul,  in  the  hope  of  thus  freeing  himself 
from  the  guardianship  of  Israel,  and  with  the  help  of  Assyria 

^  Compare  now  Sanda,  "  Die  Aramäer,"'  in  A.O.,  iv.,  ist  ed.,  p.  17. 

-  Menaliem  also,  2  Kings  xv.  19. 

^  In  738  he  came  to  Syria,  called  by  Panammu  of  Sam'al,  i.e.  Zenjiili,  to  his 
help  against  Azriya'u,  who  had  overpowered  the  district  of  Yaudi  belonging  to 
Sam'al.  This  fact  has  led  to  great  confusion.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  this 
was  Azaryah  of  Judah.  The  error  has  now  been  corrected,  see  Winckler,  F.,  i. 
I    ff.:   "Das  syrische  Land  Jaudi  und  der  angebliche  Azarja  von  Juda." 

"*  Instead  of  Rezin  it  should  therefore  be  read  Resün. 

"  See  p.  206. 

''  Inscription  upon  clay  fablet  of  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  {Ä'.T.,  yd  ed.,  34) 
from  Nimrud. 


216     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

again  establishing  the  kingdom  of  David.  He  thus  drew  upon 
himself  the  enmitv  of  Rezin  of  Syria  and  of  Pekah  of  Israel 
(2  Kings  XV.  37),  an  enmitv  which,  under  Ahaz,  led  to  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem.  Judah  was  to  be  by  force  of  arms  com- 
pelled  to  join  the  confederacv  against  Tiglath-Pileser  ;  "the 
son  of  Tab^el"  who,  according  to  Isa.  vii.  6,  was  to  be  king  in 
Jerusalem,  is  no  other  than  Rezin. ^  Isaiah,  in  Opposition  to  the 
populär  voice,  pressingly  warned  Ahaz  against  adherence  to 
Assyria.-  He  was  to  stand  firm  against  the  wrath  of  Syvia  and 
Israel  (Isa.  vii.),  and  for  the  rest,  to  have  faith  and  be  quiet. 
He  sees  in  spirit  how  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  swallow  up 
Judah  (Isa.  viii.  5  ff.).  But  his  warning  was  in  vain.  He  re- 
served  it  thenceforward  for  the  circle  of  his  disciples,  as  wine 
is  preserved  in  «kins  for  the  restoration  of  future  ages.  And 
the  course  of  events  seemed  for  the  moment  to  put  the  prophet 
in  the  wrong. 

The  campaign  of  Pul  to  the  Westland  in  the  year  734  freed 
Judah  from  its  difficulty.  According  to  2  Kings  xvi.  7,  Ahaz 
himself  prayed  him  to  come  by  sending  (an  extraordinary  ?) 
tribute.  The  Assyrian  army  marched  first  against  Philistia. 
On  the  way  there  (Annais,  227)  they  passed  through  and  took 
possession  of  Israel.  Pul's  aim  was  at  the  same  time  to  cut  off 
Damascus  from  help  from  the  south  ;  he  passed  through  Galilee, 
and  included  the  distriet  of  Manasseh  as  a  district  of  Damascus, 
and  made  it,  together  with  part  of  the  Hauran,  into  the  province 
of  Zobah.  This  event  signified  the  actual  fall  of  the  State  of 
Israel.  In  an  inscription,^  which  describes  the  events  of  the 
year  733,  Pul  says  that  in  the  previous  campaign  he  had 
made  all  the  cities  of  the  "  house  of  Omri  '^  into  districts  of 
his  land,  led  the  inhabitants  into  captivity,  and  only  left 
Samaria  (Ephraim).  Figs.  170  f  and  209  ff.  may  serve  to 
illustrate  such  wars.  The  Bible  records  this  carrying  away  in 
2  Kings  XV.  29.     The  northern  half  of  Israel,  Manasseh,  there- 

^  See  Bredenkainp  in  the  Commentavy  upon  the  passage,  and  Winckler, 
AU-tcstainentlicht   Untersnchittigeu,  p.   74. 

-  We  cannot  agree  with  Wilke's  opinion  m  Jesaja  itud  Assitr  conceining  the 
change  of  Isaiah's  Assyrian  policy.  It  is,  besides,  totally  difterent  fiom  Isa.  vii. 
14  ff.  and  ix.  5  ff. 

'  Annalen  227,  see  K.T.,  3rd  ed.,  31. 


ISRAEL   AND    ASSYRIA 


217 


fore  was  wholly  Assyrian.  Is  thi>;  why  Hosea  savs  onlv 
Ephraim,  and  no  longer  Israel  ?  Now,  whilst  Pul,  733,  advanced 
against  Gaza,  Pekah  was  overthrown  in  Samavia,  and  Hosea 
( A-u-si-')  with  the  favour  of  the  Assyrian  king  took  over  the 
rule.     It  is  said  in  the  inscriptions  of  Pul : 

They  overthrew  their  king  Pekah^  I  set  Hosea  [to  nile]  over 
tliem.  I  received  ten  talents  of  gold  ....  talents  of  silver  as 
a  gift. 

By  this  Statement  the  Situation  in  2  Kings  xv.  30  is  confirmed 
and  elucidated  ("  Hosea  made  a  conspiracy  against  Pekah,  slew 


Fig.  170.  —  Storm  of  a  fourfold-vvalled  fortress  by  Sargon.     Relief  from 
Khor.5abad  (Botta). 

him,  and  became  king  in  his  stead"").  We  also  gather  froni  it 
that  in  2  Kings  xvii.  3  Shalmaneser  must  be  corrected  to  Pul.^ 
In  the  following  year,  Ahaz  of  Judah  fulfilled  his  feudal 
duty  to  Assyria,  when  Pul  marched  to  destroy  the  isolated 
Damascus.  We  may  consider  that  Ahaz  found  hiniself  in 
person  amongst  Tiglath-Pileser^s  followers  during  this  victorious 
campaign,  of  which  the  tablet-writers  give  füll  detail.  The 
siege  of  Damascus,  of  which  2  Kings  xvi.  9  gives  a  summary 
record,  seems  to  have  la.sted  two  years  (733  and  732).  After 
the  conquest  of  the  city  the  Phoenician  ports  stood  open  to  the 

^  See  Im  Kampf  um  Babel  tind  Bibel,  4th  ed.,  p.  12.     Kittel,  in  Könige,  upon 
the  passage  cancels  Shalmaneser  as  a  gloss  ;  compare  also  K.A.T.,  ßrd  ed.,  268. 


218     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

great  king  of  Assyria.     The  remainder  of  the  state  of  Israel 
could  not  have  held  out  long. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Pul,  Hosea  of  Israel,  in  union  with 
Tyre  and  other  possessors  of  Mediterranean  ports,  must  have 
refused  tribute  to  Shalmaneser  IV. ^     Unfortunatelv,  we  have  no 


Fig.  171.  —  Assyrian  representation  ot  a  battle.     Assurbanipal 
fighting  against  the  Elamites. 

inscriptions  of  this  period.  They  niust  have  told  of  the  puni- 
tary  canipaign  against  the  Westland,  and  of  the  three-year 
siege  of  Saniaria  (2  Kings  xvii.  5).  Tiie  conquest  of  the  city 
first  took  place  under  his  successor  Sargon  (722-705  .f* ),- whose 
annals  teil  in  the  very  beginning  of  the  fall  of  Saniaria : 

In  the  beginning  of  niy  veign  [722]  and  in  the  first  year  of  my 
i-eign  ...   I  besieged  Saniaria  and  conquered  it  .   .   .   .   [tliree  lines 


Tebet  727  to  Tebet  723. 


An  usurpei  ?  see  p.  271,  n.  i. 


ISRAEL   AND    ASSYRIA 


219 


nre  missino-l  ...  I  cavvied  away  27,290  inhabitants,  I  took  from 
ihencefiftvchaviots  of  war  as  my  voyal  due  .  .  .  I  restored  and 
colonised  it  more  than  formerly.  I  colonised  it  with  people  from 
lands  I  had  conquered.  I  set  my  officers  as  governors  over  them. 
I  laid  lipon  them  Assyrian  tribiite  and  taxes. 

We  call  this  event  "  the  carrying  away  of  the  ten  tribes." 
In  reality  the  niain  event  happened  eleven  years  earlier  when 
Manasseh  becanie  an 
Assyrian  province  (p. 
216).  What  we  desig- 
nate  as  the  "  carrying 
away  of  the  ten  tribes" 

could    only    relate   to 

Ephraim,    i.e.    to    the 

district,     which      was 

bounded  on  the  south 

by  Judah,  on  the  north 

by  Galilee,  and  on  the 

east  by  Jordan.     The 

record,  1   Chron.  v.  26 

and    vi.,    throws    the 

records  of  the  two  de- 

portations  of  733  and 

722  together,  if  it  re- 

lates  tothedeportation 
of   the    tribes   east   of 


Yio.  172. -King  Sargon  II.  and  his  field-marshal. 


Jordan.  Sargon  gives  the  number  carried  away  as  27,290.  He 
left  those  who  possessed  nothing  in  the  land.  Two  years  later 
the  renniants  of  the  inhabitants,  ander  the  leading  of  Ya  u-bi^di 
(variant  El-biYli)  of  Hamath,  once  more  took  part  in  a  rising 
ao-ainst  Assyria.  The  result  was  that,  after  a  battle  near 
Qarqar,  Hamath,  and  with  it  the  rest  of  the  great  Aramaean 
State,  became  an  Assyrian  province. 

o  Kinos  xvii.  names  iMesopotamia  and  Media  as  places  to 
which  the  exiles  were  taken ;  according  to  the  Book  ot  Jobit 
they  were  also  taken  to  Nineveh  itself.  For  lurther  detail 
upJn  this,  see  pp.  242  f.  upon  the  passage  named.  PossiWy 
heve  also  the  districts  of  the  two  deportations  of  1  o3  and  <~~ 
are  confused. 


220     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

Hlstorij  of  Jndah  from  the  Fall  of  Sinnima  to  tJie 
Destniction  of  Nineveh 

The  glowing  hopes  of  the  Jews  for  a  restoration  of  a  united 
kingdom  were  not  fulfilled  bv  the  fall  of  Saniaria.  Ahaz 
found  himself  bitterly  deceived  towards  the  end  of  his  reign. 
Therefore  his  successor,  Hezekiah,  dallied  with  the  enemies  of 
Assyria.  The  next  opportunity  that  ofFered  itself  was  the 
Philistine  rising  under  King  ^^anunu  of  Gaza,  who  had  been 
spared  by  Tiglath-Pileser-Pul,  Isa.  xiv.  23-^2.  The  Philistines 
had  clearly  been  encouraged  by  the  before-mentioned  rising  of 
Wu-bi'di  of  Hamath,  in  which  also  the  remnant  of  the  Samari- 
tans  had  taken  part.  This  insurrection  came  to  an  eqiially  bad 
end.  Hanünu,  with  9633  Philistines,  was  carried  away  to 
Assyria,  and  Rapihu,  the  boundary  fortress  of  the  district  of 
Gaza  on  the  nahal  Muzri,^  was  demolished.  The  question 
arises  as  to  how  far  Judea  took  part  in  these  events  in  neigh- 
bouring  lands.  In  the  writing  on  the  stone  tablet  of  Kelah, 
Sargon  says  of  himself,  "  he  subdued  the  distant  land  of 
Va-u-du.""  If  this  means  Judea,  we  niust  assunie  that,  hoping 
for  some  result  from  the  Philistines,  Hezekiah  for  a  while 
refused  tribute  to  Assyria,  bat  then  humbled  himself  in  good 
time  before  the  conquering  Sargon.-  But  it  may  also  mean 
that  Ya'udi  of  which  we  spoke  p.  215.  In  any  case,  in  the 
following  years,  713  tili  711,  Judea  took  part  in  the  risings 
which  broke  out  in  central  Syria.  In  the  annals  of  Sargon,  as 
in  the  Bible,  the  part  taken  by  Judah  in  a  revolt  originating 
in  the  seaport  city  of  Philistia,  Ashdod  is  expressly  mentioned. 
Sargon  names  those  concerned :  amongst  others,  Philistia 
(Pi-lis-ti),  Judah  (Yu-u-di),  and  also  Moab  and  Edom.  Isaiah 
warned  the  king  in  vain.  The  result  could  not  be  happv. 
Sargon  relates  that  he  made  Ashdod  into  a  province  and 
carried  away  the  inhabitants.^  Judah  could  not  complain  of 
severity,  if  it  was  spared. 

'  K.  T.,  2nd  ed.,  38.     Ashdod  then  ioo\<.  the  lead  against  Assur. 

-  Possibly  he  made  himself  servicenble  to  Assyria  in  the  campaign  against  the 
Philistines  attested  in  2  Kings  xviii.  S  (scatteied  passage). 

^  Annal  227,  Fr,  107.  But  this  does  not  agree,  for  immediately  afterwards  a 
king  of  Ashdod  appears,  see  p.  223. 


HEZEKIAH    AND   ASSYRIA  221 

In  the  meanwhile  hope  of  deliverance  from  the  Assyrian  rule 
had  arisen  for  Hezekiah  frora  quite  another  quarter.     Assyria  s 
most  dangerous  foe,  Merodach-Baladan  (see  fig.  187),  kiiig  of 
Babylon,  sent  an  embassy  to  Jerusalem  to  Hezekiah  ;  see  2  Kings 
XX.  ;  Isa.  xxxix.i     The  same  embassy  would  certainly  have  visited 
other  coasts  of  the  Syro-Palestinian   minor  states  to  stir  up  the 
risino-    ao-ainst    Assvria.      Merodach-Baladan    purposed  making 
Babylon    into    an    independent    power,  and    therefore    came  m 
touch    with    Assyrias    discontented    vassals.      We    may  gather 
that  this  embassy  should  be  placed  in  the  year  702.     But  it 
probablv  was  connected  with  the  reverses  which  Sargon  experi- 
enced  in  the  beginning   of  his   reign  on  Babylonian  territory. 
In  the  vear  721  ^  he  was  defeated  by  the  Elamites,  confederates 
of  the  rebellious  Babylonians ;    this  is  betrayed   to   us  by  the 
Babylonian  Chronicle,  though  the  Annais  boast   of  a  victory. 
In  fact,  Sargon  was  obliged,  in  the  first  instance,  to  renounce 
Babylonia;  it  was  only  in  the  year  710  that  he  succeeded  in 
successfully    arming   himself  against    Merodach-Baladan.       As 
thinij-s  stand  now,  we  must  therefore  think  of  the  embassy  as 
in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  and  assume  that  it 
brought  at  the  same  time  congratulations  upon  his  accession. 

Like  Ahaz,  Hezekiah  hoped  for  a  restoration  of  the  kingdom 
of  David.  Babylon  might  help,  after  Assyria  had  denied  any 
assistance.  He  rebuilt  the  Millo  upon  Zion,  restored  the  Avalls 
and  towers,  and  filled  the  treasure  Chambers,  as  the  Book  of 
Chronicles  relates  with  great  credibility.  A  religious  reform, 
originating  from  the  Teniple  in  Jerusalem,  was  to  inaugurate 
the  new^  age.  The  Information  in  the  Chronicles  in  this  case 
also  is  of  great  historical  value.  According  to  2  Chron.  xxx. 
6-11,  Hezekiah  in  those  days  sent  messengers— travelling 
"  prophets  "  (speakers)  we  must  imagine— throughout  all  Israel, 
through  the  districts  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  inviting  them 

1  Assyrian  sha'al  shulini;  exactly,  "  to  inquire  after  the  health":  in  reality 
meaning  "to  offer  his  Service,"  "  to  make  known  his  loyalty,"  comp.  p.  202. 
A  parallel  to  the  event  showing  the  meaning  of  the  words  is  presented  in 
Amarna  x.  14-27.  Burnaburiash  of  Babylon  is  very  indignant  that  Pharaoh 
Naphuria  did  not  express  sympathy  during  his  sickness.  Naphuria  says  he  knew 
nothing  about  the  sickness. 

2  According  to  the  annals  ;  according  to  the  Babylonian  Chronicle,  720. 


222     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

to  joiii  Judah  against  A.ssyria.  The  messengers,  who  would 
also  certainly  have  preached  a  propaganda  of  the  old  tradition 
of  David,  were  laughed  at  and  mocked  in  Israel.  In  Isaiah  we 
find  preserved  the  warning  voices  of  those  prophets,  who  clearly 
recognised  the  political  Situation,  and  who  held  an  adherence  to 
Babylon  to  be  liighly  dangeious.  Sargon,  as  a  fact,  did  succeed 
in  absolutely  sulsduiiig  Babylonia,  as  soon  as  he  was  able  to  cut 
oft"  Elamite  help.  In  the  first  year  of  the  canipaign,  710,  he 
entered  Babylon  as  king. 

It  is  knuwn  that  Sar«>on  niet  liis  death  in  705.  One  year 
previously  the  Eponyni  lists  announce  the  dedication  ot"  his 
residence,  Dur-Sharnikin^  north  of  Xineveh.  Up  to  then  he  had 
resided  in  Kelah.  The  circumstances  of  his  death  are  not  yet 
quite  clear.  The  passages  of  the  Assyrian  docunients  wliich  speak 
of  it  are  mutilated.  Proliably  he  died  a  violent  death  during  a 
campaign,  for  it  is  said  in  K  4730 :  "  He  was  not  buried  in  his 
house."  Possibly  the  Song  of  the  Underworld,  Isa.  xiv.  4-20^ 
where  the  poet  was  quite  familiär  with  Babylonian  thought  cycles, 
was  originally  intended  for  the  death  of  Sargon.  Otherwise 
Sennaeherib  might  be  in  question.     See  upon  the  passage,  p.  270. 

Sargoifs  son  and  successor,  Sennaeherib  (704-681),  not  only 
ventured  all  upon  definitely  breaking  Babylonia's  desire  for 
freedom,  he  followed  mach  niore  the  adventurous  seheme  of 
making  Assyria's  doniinion  ^  free  froni  the  overwhelming  power 
of  Babylon's  civilisation  :  he  purposed  conquering  Egypt,  and, 
with  the  fall  of  Babylon ia,  to  open  up  new  ways  through  Egypt.- 
But  just  this  forceful  policy  de.stroyed  the  power  of  Assyria. 
The  distant  vassal  states  refused  tribute.  The  Biblical  Books 
of  the  Kings  inform  us  how  Judah  also,  under  Hezekiah,  sought 
to  make  use  of  the  Assyro-Babylonian  confusion  to  shake  off 
Assyrian  rule.  Sennacherib''s  seheme  to  extend  his  power  over 
Arabia  to  Egypt  was  fatal  to  Judah.  Judea  had  to  be  en- 
chained,  for  it  lay  upon  the  southern  boundary  of  Assyrian 
possessions. 

The  Biblical  record  speaks  of  three  campaigns  of  Sennaeherib 
against  Jerusalem. 

'  He  suppressed  Kelah,  and  made  Nineveh  into  a  brilliant  residence ;  see 
pp.  297,  i.  f. 

2  Esarhaddon  aimed  at  the  same  goal  with  the  help  of  Babylonia.  Under 
Assurbanipal  Egypt  was  lost ;  compare  the  remarkable  passage,  Isa.  xi.\.  2^  f. 


SENNACHERIB 


223 


1.  In  the  year  701,  after  he  had  temporarily  pacified  Babylon, 
he  marched  to  the  Westland. ^  Only  Tyre,  which  Sennacherib 
besieged  in  vain,  and  Hezekiah  opposed  him,  in  the  hope  of 
help  from  the  Sheikhs  of  Muzri  and  IMeluhhi. 

The  Biblical  record  relates  about  this  campaign  : 

In  the  fouvteeiith  year  of  king  Hezekiah,  did  Sennacherib,  king 
of  Assyria,  come  up  against  all  the  &trong  cities  of  Judah  and 
took  them.  Then  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  sent  to  the  king  of 
Assyria  to  Lachish,  saying :  I  have  offended ;  withdraw  again  from 
nie  :  that  which  thoii  puttest  on  me  will  I  bear.  Then  the  king  of 
Assyria  appointed  unto  Hezekiah  three  hundred  talents  of  silver, 
and  thirty  talents  of  gold  (2  Kings  xviii.  13-16). 

In  Order  to  pay  this  enormous  suni,  Hezekiah  was  forced  to 
seize  upon  the  treasures  of  the  Temple  and  palace,  and  even  to 


Fig.  173. — Musicians  and  /iittsicüit/tc-s.     Out  of  a  palace  of  Assurbaiiipal. 

strip  the  gold  from  the  Temple  gates ;  2  Kings  xviii.  16.     The 
Assyrian  record  relates  the  same  events  as  follows  :  - 

And  uf  Hezekiah  of  Judea,  who  had  not  bowed  beneath  my 
yoke,  I  besieged  forty-six  strong  cities,  surrounded  by  walls,  and 
numberless  smaller  cities  in  their  neighboui'hood  ;  with  overthrow 
of  raniparts  (?)  and  storming  of  the  battering  ram  (?),  assault  of  the 
zuk-shepa  troops  by  breaches,  with  hatchets  (.^)  and  axes  I  besieged 
and  conquered  (them);  200,150  people,  young,  old,  men  and 
women,  horses,  mules,  donkeys,  cameis,  cattle  and  sniall  beasts 
without  number  I  led  out,  and  counted  them  as  booty.  He  himself 
I  imprisoned  like  a  cage  bird  in  Jerusalem,  his  residence ;  I  raised 
strongholds  against  him,  and  turned  back  (?)  those  who  came  out 
of  the  gates  of  his  city.  His  cities,  which  I  had  plundered,  I 
separated  from  his  land  and  gave  them  to  Mitinti,  king  of  Ashdod,^ 
Padi,  king  of  Ekron  and  Zil-bel,  king  of  Gaza,  and  diminished  his 
land.     To  the  former  tribute,  the  fruit  of  his   land,  I  added  the 

^  See  Prasek,  "  Sanheribs  Feldzüge  gegen  Jüda,"  JM.V.A.G.,  1903,  113  f., 
where  other  works  of  reference  are  quoted.  Compare  also  Nagl,  Die  nachdavidische 
Kön  igs gesell  ich  te . 

-  K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  43  f.  ^  P.  221,  n.  i. 


2^4     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

tribute  and  the  jjresents  due  to  mv  sovereignty,  and  laid  them 
lipon  him.  He,  Hezekiah,  was  overpowered  by  fear  ot"  the  glory  of 
niy  royalty,  and  the  Urbi  and  his  brave  (?)  warriors,  Mhom  he  had 
caused  to  come  (thither)  to  the  defence  of  Jerusalem,  his  residence, 
mutinied.i  Together  with  thirty  talents  of  gold  (and)  SOG  talenls 
of  silver,  he  sent  to  me  to  Nineveh,  my  chief  eity,  precious  stones, 
cosmetics  ....  pure  uknii  stones,  couches  of  ivory,  thrones  of 
ivory,  elephant  skhis^  ivory,  Ushii  and  L'rkarinu  wood,  all  kinds  of 
tveasures  in  quantity,  and  his  daughters  and'Vomen  of  the  palace, 


Fig.  174. — Sennacherib  enthroned  befoie  Lachish  receiving  tribute. 

and    musicians    and    musiciennes    (comp.    fig.    I7ö').-      He    sent 
messengers  to  deliver  his  tribute  and  to  declare  his  subjection. 


his 


Roth  records  give  evidence  that  in  thi.s  canipaign  Jerusalem 
was  not  really  besieged.  Sennacherib  was  in  any  case  not  then 
in  a  condition  to  be  able  to  take  the  powerfui  Jerusalem.  He 
was  obliged  to  send  the  main  part  of  his  fighting  strength  home, 
because  new  disturbances  had  broken  out  in  Rabylon.  So  he 
had  contented  himself  with  threatening  Jerusalem  and  holding 
it  in  check  from  some  streng  point.     This  point  must,  according 

'  Irshu  batlati  {com^.  DeWU.sch,  Handwörtcrhuck,  171a). 

^  The  remark  is  very  important  in  the  history  of  the  pre-e.\ilic  Temple  music  in 
Jerusalem,  and  until  now  has  remained  unnoted.  i  Sam.  ii.  22''  is  true  in  its 
niention  of  women  of  the  Temple  in  Shiloh.  Mishnah  Erachin  viii.  4  also  speaks 
of  Canaanile  Temple  slaves  (women)  in  Jerusalem. 


HEZEKIAH   AND   SENNACHERIB  225 

to  the  Biblical  record,  have  been  Lachish,^  which  lay  near  the 
present  Tell-el-hasi,  southwards  from  the  road  leading  from 
Gaza  to  Jerusalem.  The  Assyrian  inscription  certainly  does  not 
name  Lachish,  but  an  inscription  on  a  relief  which  shows  the 
king  on  his  throne,  whilst  tribute-bearers  appear  before  him, 
(see  fig.  174)  says  : 

Sennaclierib,  king  of  the  wovld^  king  of  Assyria,  seated  himself 
lipon  the  throne,  and  the  prisoners  from  Lacliish  came  up  before 
him. 

This  gives  evidence  that  Lachish  played  such  a  röle  in  these 
circumstances.  But  one  asks  noAv  :  Why  did  Hezekiah  submit 
himself  to  the  humiliating  tribute  ?  The  answer  is  perhaps  to 
be  found  in  the  results  obtained  by  Sennacherib  against 
Babylon,  of  which  Hezekiah  received  news  during  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem.  Hezekiah,  already  made  anxious  for  himself  by  the 
loss  of  his  cities  of  Judah,  bowed  himself,  after  the  subjugation 
of  Babylon,  before  the  representative  of  the  king,  who  appeared 
from  Lachish  (2  Kings  xviii.  14  does  not  necessitate  the  assump- 
tion  that  Sennacherib  Avas  in  Lachish  in  person),  and  paid 
tribute  and  even  sent  it  (and  this  also  argues  for  our  idea),  with 
a  deputation,  who  were  to  confirm  Hezekiah's  subjection,  to 
Nineveh !  We  assumed,  therefore,  on  the  authority  of  the 
inscriptions,  that  between  2  Kings  xviii.  13  and  14  Sennacherib's 
good  fortune  in  Babylon  and  a  lengthy  investment  of  Jersualem 
are  to  be  concluded.  Whether  the  tribute  sum  thirty  talents  of 
gold  and  three  hundred  talents  of  silve.r  according  to  the  Bible,  and 
thirty  talents  of  gold  and  eight  hundred  talents  of  silver  according 
to  the  inscriptions,  are  equivalent,  we  do  not  know,  as  we  do  not 
know  the  Assyrian  money  values  well  enough.  This  subjection 
of  Hezekiah  is  registered  on  the  inscription  of  Sennacherib  from 
the  Nebi-Yunus  mound-  in  the  following  words : 

I  overthrew  the  wide  borders  of  Judah ;  I  forced  obedience 
upon  its  king  Hezekiah. 

1  Seat  Ol  a  pre-Israelite  Canaanite  kingdom  according  to  Joshua  x.  3.  In  Micah 
i,  3  probably  the  same  Lachish  is  meant.  There  a  chariot  without  horses  is 
spoken  of  which  is  the  occasion  of  sin.  A  processional  car  is  probably  meant. 
An  antithesis  to  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 

2  See  /CT.,  2nd  ed.,  47  ? 

VOL.   II.  15 


226     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

2.  The  scene  described  2  Kings  xviii.  17-xix.  8  we  take  to  be  an 
episode  in  the  campaign  just  spoken  of.^  It  records  the  dealings 
with  Hezekiah  from  Lachish.  Rabshakeh's  oration  is  an  added 
poetical  amplification.  The  supposition  upon  which  the  oration 
is  founded,  that  Hezekiah  had  ah-eady  put  faith  in  Egypt,  which 
like  a  broken  reed  pierces  the  band  that  leans  upon  it,  is 
probably  taken  over  from  the  Situation  in  the  later  campaign, 
described  2  Kings  xix.  9  ff.,  a  Situation  which  first  developed 
itself  in  691,  when  Tirhakah,  the  third  Ethiopian  king,  came 
to  the  throne,  and  menaced  Assyria.  When  the  messengers 
arrived  who  were  to  demand.  tribute  and  homage  from  Hezekiah, 
Sennacherib  had  already  withdrawn  from  Lachish  to  Libnah. 
We  do  not  know  where  Libnah  was.  But  the  statement  agrees 
with  the  assumption  mentioned  above  :  Sennacherib  was  forced 
to  withdraw  with  the  main  body  of  his  army  from  Lachish  and 
to  return  home,  because  new  tumults  had  broken  out  in 
Babylonia. 

3.  The  third  division  of  the  Books  of  Kings,  2  Kings  xix. 
9-37  (comp.  Isa.  xxxvii.  9-37),  speaks  of  a  later  campaign  of 
Sennacherib  which  must  have  taken  place  in  the  period  after 
the  destruction  of  Babylon.  It  is  marked  by  the  appearance  of 
Tirhakah,  who  only  came  to  the  throne  in  69L  We  have  no 
Assyrian  account  of  this  campaign.  Shortly  after  it  Sennacherib 
was  murdered.-  The  last  thing  that  the  annals  record  of  his 
deeds  is  the  destruction  of  Babylon.  The  tablet-writers  had 
the  less  reason  for  describing  the  campaign  in  that  its  course 
was  unfortunate.  Cuneiform  experts  and  historians  have  there- 
fore  tried  in  vain  to  reconcile  the  Biblical  record  of  the  unhappy 

^  In  Isa.  xxxvi. -xxxvii.  8  we  have  the  two  passages  2  Kings  xviii.  13-16  and 
18,  xvü.-xix,  8  combined.  The  investigations  of  B.  Stade,  Zeilschriß  fih-  altt. 
Wissensch.,  1886,  173  f.,  upon  the  different  authorilies,  are  of  fundamental 
importance. 

2  Nagel,  Der  Zug  des  Sanherib  (1902),  and  Wilke,  _/s.fa;a  und  Asstt?;  declare 
themsclves  against  the  assumption  of  two  campaigns.  Tirhaka  appears  in  701, 
eighteen  years  before  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Egypt,  as  king  of  Cush  (here 
=  Eihiupia).  This  is  an  historical  impossibility.  If  it  is  referring  to  one 
camjiaign  then  Tirhakah  might  be  an  erroneous  gloss.  But  then  the  direct  con- 
ntciion  uf  the  slory  with  ihe  dealh  of  Sennacherib  is  inexplicable.  Between 
701  and  the  death  of  Sennacherib  lies  the  proudest  act  of  his  life  :  the  conquest 
and  destruction  of  Babylon. 


SENN  ACHER  IB  227 

result  with  the  annals  of  Sennacherib.  Forty  years  or  more 
ago,  however,  G.  Rawlinson  had  already  recognised  that  the 
Biblical  record  belonged  to  a  campaign  of  which  there  is  no 
niention  in  the  annals  of  Sennacherib. 

Upon  a  campaign  in  the  Westland  (after  691)  Sennacherib 
suddenly  found  himself  threatened  by  Tirhakah,  the  third  of  the 
Ethiopian  kings  (since  691,  according  to  Egyptian  accounts). 
He  .sent  messengers  to  Jerusalem,  and  demanded  the  surrender 
of  the  city. 

In  this  Situation  the  second  highly  important  appearance  of 
Isaiah  took  place.  Hezekiah  sent  to  the  prophet  and  asked  how 
he  should  act  in  reference  to  the  demand  of  the  Assyrian,  who 
mocked  at  any  trust  in  Yahveh.  The  king  obeyed  the  voice  of 
the  prophet  and  replied  with  a  refusal. 

Isaiah^s  prophecy,  2  Kings  xix.  32-34,  that  Sennacherib  should 
not  enter  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  that  it  should  not  even  be 
besieged,  was  marvellously  fulfilled  (2  Kings  xix.  35  f.  ;  comp. 
^2  Chron.  xxxii.  21): 

In  the  same  niglit  the  angel  of  Yaliveh  went  fovth  (allegoric 
t'xpressiou  for  tlie  plague)  and  sniote  in  tlie  camp  of  the  Assyrians 
185,000  meii ;  tlien  Sennacherib  departed  and  retiirned  and  dwelt 
at  Nineveli. 

This  event,  which  must  have  been  looked  upon  as  a  special 
intervention  of  God,  brought  Isaiah  into  high  esteem. 

If  2  Chron.  xxxii.  9  does  not  contain  an  error,  which  might 
proceed  from  confusion  in  the  connecting  verse  2  Kings  xviii.  9, 
this  time  also  the  negotiations  with  Jerusalem  were  conducted 
from  Lachish.  TheBible  unites  the  Information  of  the  murder 
of  Sennacherib  with  the  record  (681). 

Towards  the  end  of  682  Sennacherib  was  murdered  by  one  of 
bis  sons.      The  Babylonian  Chronicle  relates  : 

"  Upon  20th  Tebet,  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  was  killed  by 
liis  son  in  a  rebellion." 

The  place  of  the  murder  was  Babylon.  For  Assurbanipal  relates 
that  at  the  conquest  of  Babylon  he  slew  people  as  sacrifice  to  the 
dead  by  the  statues  of  the  protecting  gods  (therefore  at  the  o-ate 
of  the  Temple),  near  where  Sennacherib  was  murdered.  But  it'^can 
scarcely  be  assumed  that  they  were  taken  to  Nineveh  for  this 
purpose. 

The  special  place  for  the  deed  would  be  the  temple  of  Marduk. 


228     POLITICAL   HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

The  Biblical  record  does  not  contradict  this  (2  Kings  xix.  37)  :  "  he 
returned  and  dwelt  at  Nmeveh.  And  as  he  worshipped  in  the  temple 
of  Xisroch,  his  god^  there  smote  him.  ..."  Between  the  two  sen- 
tences  there  sliould  be  a  gap.  The  name  Nisroch  is  in  the  usual  way 
a  mutilation  of  Marduk.  The  •'  two  sons  "  of  the  Bibhcal  record  is 
founded  upon  a  misunderstanding ;  the  Bible  probably  handed 
down  two  names  of  the  same  person.^ 

Shortly  before  his  death  (after  the  death  of  Hezekiah  ?) 
Sennacherib  niust  have  succeeded  in  forcing  Jerusalem  to 
obedience.  For  Hezekiah'^s  successor  Manasseh  again  sent 
tribute  to  Nineveh.  Aniongst  the  vassal  princes  who  pay 
tribute  to  Esarhaddon  (see  fig.  180),  Sennacheribls  son  and 
successor  (681  to  668),  appears  Me-na-si-e  shar  (king)  Ya-u-di 
(Assurbanipal  calls  him  Mi-in-si-e).  According  to  2  Chron. 
xxxiii.  11  he  was  forced  to  appear  at  Babylon  to  justify  him- 
self.  It  would  be  easy  for  him  to  prove  his  "  innocence,''"'  since 
the  policv  of  Esarhaddon  was  in  Opposition  to  that  of  his 
predecessor.  He  remained  faithful  to  Esarhaddon.  When, 
according  to  2  Kings  xxi.  16,  he  "  Hlled  Jerusalem  with  innocent 
blood,''  that  probably  ineans  the  extirpation  of  the  anti- 
Assyrian  partv.  In  this  case  that  would  have  been  the  party  of 
Yahveh.  In  Opposition  to  it  and  to  He/.ekiah's  policy,  Manasseh 
introduced  the  Assyrian  cult.  In  particular  he  again  erected 
the  statue  of  Asherah  (xxi.  7)  which  Hezekiah  (xviii.  4)  had  done 
away  with. 

Then,  when  Esarhaddon  marched  against  Egypt  (in  671 
Tirhakah  was  defeated  and  Memphis  conquered),  like  the 
rest  of  the  princes  of  Palcstine  Manasseh  was  obliged  to 
supply  auxiliary  troops.  The  campaign  passed  through  tracts 
of  Arabia  which  were  enveloped  in  mystery  and  which 
Imagination  peopled  with  fabulous  beings.  Esarhad(lon''s  in- 
scriptions  teil  of  two-headed  serpents  and  other  remarkable 
winged  beasts  which  brought  death  and  amazenient  into  his 
army,  tili  Marduk  the  great  Lord  came  to  the  rescue,  and 
inspired  the  troops  anew.  Isa.  xxx.  6  seems  to  reproduce  Judaic 
memories  of  the  terrors  of  such  a  campaign  : 

'  The  Babylonian  Chronicle  names  only  one  son,  likewise  Berossus,  follovving 
Polyhistor;  Ardumuzanus,  according  to  Abydenus  ;  Adramelus,  see  K.A.T., 
3rd  ed.,  84.  In  the  Armenian  fables  of  the  heroes  the  two  Biblical  murderers 
are  celebrated  as  national  heroes  onaccount  of  2  Kings  xix.  37;  see  p.  276,  i.,  n.  3. 


ESARHADDON 


229 


Through  a  land  of  trouble  and  anguish,  as  [they]  there  [bring]  Hon 
and  lioness,  viper  and  flying  dragon,  they  carry  their  riches  upon 
the  backs  of  asses,  and  their  treasures  upon  the  bunches  of  cameis, 
to  a  people  that  is  of  no  use  !     Egypt's  help  is  vain  and  useless. 


Fig.  175. — King  Assurbanipal  and  his  vvife  in  a  vine-covered  arbour. 

Duriiig  a  new  Egyptian  campaign  against  Tirhakah  Esav 
haddon  died  in  the  year  668.  His  son 
Assurbanipal  (see  fig.  175)  continued  the 
war  against  Tirhakah's  nephew  Tanut- 
Animon  and  conquered  Thebes.  To  him 
also  Manasseh  was  obliged  to  supplj 
auxiliaries.  Very  soon,  however,  diffi- 
culties  at  home  made  it  impossible  for 
Assurbanipal  to  follow  up  his  conquests 
in  the  south.  The  destructive  wars  against 
Assyria  began  which  ended  with  the  fall 
of  Nineveh  (see  above,  pp.  297,  i.  f.)- 

The  Jewish  patriots  awaited  this  issue 
with  glowing    fervour.       Manasseh    was    hated   because    of  his 
Assyrian  inclinations.     His  son    Amon  was  murdered    for  the 

1  Sunounding  inscription  :  To  Merodach,  his  Lord,  Nebuchadnezzar  King  of 
Babylon  has  presented  this  for  his  life.  In  the  Hague  museum  is  a  similar  stone 
without  a  head.  They  are  held  to  be  the  eyes  of  astatue  of  Mardukconsecrated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  ;  then  in  a  lata  Greek  period  the  head  was  inserted  in  oneof  them. 


Fig.  176,  —  Cameo  of 
Nebuchadnezzar.  Por- 
trait spurious,  Greek 
in  character.i  Berlin 
Museum. 


230     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

same  cause.  ^  He  was  followed  bj  Josiah,  who  in  the  eighteenth 
year  of  his  reign  began  bis  great  religious  reformation.  His 
accessio!!  must  have  taken  place  with  the  approbation  of  Assyria, 
still  under  Assurbanipal.  Till  after  his  death  he  was  held  by  the 
Jews  as  a  "  deliverer,"  as  has  been  said  pp.  99  f.,  i.  1  Kings  xiii.  2 
relates  that  his  coming  as  Deliverer  was  foretold.  The  great 
reformation  was  probably  to  inaugurate  the  restoration  of  the 
ancient  kingdom,  as  before  under  Hezekiah.  Josiah  met  with 
his  tragic  end  when  he  went  (in  the  Service  of  Assyria  ?  )  to  stop 
Necho  in  his  march  through  Syria  (Megiddo  instead  of  Migdal 
Ashtoreth  ?  see  p.  200). 

In  the  meanwhile,  a  Chaldaean  dynasty,  in  the  person  of 
Nabopolassar,  had  disputed  the  sovereigntv  in  Babylon  with 
success,  and  inaugurated  the  second  Babylonian  kingdom. 
Jehoiakim  did  homage  (605)  to  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar 
(comp.  fig.  176),  after  the  latter,  following  the  fall  of 
Nineveh,  had  defeated  the  Pharaoh  Necho  near  Karkemish  and 
by  pursuit  of  the  enemy  had  taken  possession  of  Palestine  to 
the  southern  boundary.     2  Kings  xxiv.  1  relates  : 

In  his  (Jehoiakim's)  days  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of  Babylon  came 
up,  and  Jehoiakim  became  his  servant  thvee  years  :  but  then  he 
turned  and  rebelled  against  him. 

A  campaign  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  attested  in  cuneiform 
writings,-  against  Ammananu  (anti-I.ebanon)  was  therefore 
probably  directed  against  him  and  otlier  states  of  Palestine 
who  owed  tribute.  The  punishraent  first  feil  upon  his  son 
Jehoiachin.  He  was  taken  prisoner  (Dan.  i.  1  f,  who  also 
confuses  the  event  in  other  ways,  says  erroneously  Jehoiakim), 
the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  were  partly  carried  away,  and  the 
worship  of  Yahveh  was  suspended  by  the  removal  of  the  sacred 
vessels.^     The  lawful  position  of  Zedekiah,  who  was  recognised 

'  The  party  which  revenged  him  is  calied  p.sM  oi',  "  peasants."  It  is  the 
same  form  of  expressioii  as  the  Roman /a^a«/=heathen. 

-  See  Winckler,  K'.A.  T.,  3rd  ed.,  107  ff.,  wheie  the  meaning  of  the  long  knowii 
inscription  is  determined  ;  text,  K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  58. 

^  See  2  Kings  xxiv.  13  and  comp.  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  10  ;  this  act  here  takes  the 
place  of  the  removal  of  the  statue  of  the  god,  which  was  necessary  according  to 
Oriental  usage  ;  see  Winckler,  A';//.  Sehr.,  120  ff.  ;  K.A.T.,  y\  ed.,  279  f., 
comp.  pp.  290  f. 


NEBUCHADiNEZZAR 


231 


as  king  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  is  not  clear.  When  bis  hopes^ 
of  making  a  free  position  for  Judea  with  the  Babylonian 
court  miscarried,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  led  into  rebellion 
by  Egypt.  For  this  gruesome  punishment  feil  upon  him. 
He  was  blinded.-  City  and  temple  were  destroyed,  and  the 
district  declared  waste-land.  The  rest  of  the  land  remained 
untouched.  Mizpah  became  the  seat  of  government  (2  Kings 
XXV,  23),  Gedaliah  was  recognised  as  their  governor,  and  the 
land  was  placed  under  the  supervision  of  Chaldaean  officers. 
The  Je  WS  who  were  carried  away  to  Babylon  played  a  very 


'T^ 


S^':i\': 


Fig.  177.— An  Asbyriaa  king  (Sargon  II.)  puts  out 
the  eyes  of  a  prisoner. 

distinguished  part  in  the  country  of  the  Euphrates,  not  only 
in  economical  relations,  as,  amongst  others,  the  commercial 
contracts  from  the  excavations  at  Nippur  show,  but  they  had 
also  to  be  considered  politically.  Amel-Marduk  (Evil-merodach) 
in  the  first  vear  of  his  reign  confirmed  the  prisoner  Jehoiachin 
as  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xxv.  27),  and  thereby  theoretically 
again  recognised  the  claim  to  existence  of  a  Jewish  state. 
After  that  the  leaders  of  the  exiles  hoped  for  a  return.  After 
a  time  of  bitter  disappointment  under  the  Chaldaean  rulers, 
they  welcomed  the  Babylonian  hierarch  Cyrus  as  the  one  who 
would  fulHl  their  hopes  and  realise  the  frustrated  measure  of 
Amel-Marduk.     In  Isa.  xlv.   1  Cyrus  is  greeted  as  the  heaven- 

i  Comp.  Jer.  xxvi.  16  ;  xxviii.  1-4  ;  xxix.  3. 
2  Comp.  fig.  177. 


232     POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH 

sent,  "  whüse  right  hand  is  held  by  Yahveh,""  ^  of  whom 
Yahveh  says  "  he  is  my  shepherd  and  shall  accomplish  all  my 
will.'"     The  inscription  of  Cyrus  agrees  with  this,  wheve  it  says  : 

Marduk  looked  around  and  sought  for  a  righteous  kiiig,  and  he 
took  the  man  after  his  own  heart  and  called  Kurash  to  be  king 
over  the  whole  world  (for  more  detail,  see  upon  Isa.  xliv.  28, 
pp.  274  f  ).2 

The  impression  given  is  almost  as  though  the  author  of  the 


Fig.  178. — Bronze  carrier  for  holy  water  vessels  [mekoitah). 
Discovered  in  Cyprus.  Original  novv  in  Antiquity 
Room  of  the  Berlin  Museum. 

prophetic  passage  must  have  known  the  text  of  the  Cyrus 
cyliiider.'^  After  the  conquest  of  Babylon  in  539  Cyrus  gave 
the  permission  for  return  and  for  the  foundation  of  an  inde- 
pendent  political  state,  with  its  own  adniinistration.'^  The 
contention  over  the  kind  of  government,  whether  it  should  be 
a  civil  or  a  religious  Constitution,  was  the  stimulating  force  in 
the  following  historical  development  of  Judaism. 

^  Upon  the  ceremonial  of  holding  the  hand,  compare,  for  example,  fig.  35, 
p.  109,  i. 

^  He  also  deceived  the  people  of  Judah.  The  Jews  said,  according  to  Berach. 
17,  a  ■»•ann  b-tid.  In  other  places  certainly,  as  Rosh  hashanah  i.  3*^,  Cyrus  is 
praised  as  "  righteous  king." 

3  Comp.  Kittel  in  Z.A.  W.,  1898,  149  ff. 

••  For  further  detail,  particularly  in  reference  tu  the  reiigion  of  Cyrus,  see 
pp.  274  f. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

FURTHER    GLOSSES    UPON    THE    BOOKS    OF    KINGS,    CHRONICLES, 
EZRA,   AND   NEHEMIAH 

Upon  1  Kings  i.-xii.  11,  see  pp.  185-191. 

1  Kings  xii.  28  :  The  statues  of  golden  calves  in  Bethel  and  Dan 
are  still  inexplicable.  They  seem  to  have  represented  Yahveh 
in  the  populär  religion.  But  the  meaning  of  the  statues,  like 
the  "golden  calf"  in  Exod.  xxxii.  (see  pp.  138  f.),  must  be 
sought  in  astral  mjthology ;  for  that  is  the  character  of  all 
animal  statues  of  the  cults  in  the  Near  East,  no  matter  from 
whence  the  exaniple  is  taken  (chief  festival ;  upon  the  füll 
moon  of  the  eighth  month,  xii.  32  f.);  for  in  these  things 
the  Near  East  is  all  one.  Every  "initiate"  in  Israel  under- 
stood  the  symbolism,  just  as  he  understood  the  symbolic 
meaning  of  the  twelve  oxen  on  the  basin  in  the  Temple 
(pp.  188  f.).  If  Elijah  did  not  inveigh  against  them,  it 
would  be  because  he  looked  upon  the  statues  as  relatively 
harmless,  and  to  be  interpreted  according  to  the  meaning  of 
the   Yahveh  religion. 

]  Kings  xiii.  2,  see  p.  230.  1  Kings  xiv.  24  (Kedishim),  see 
p.  61. 

1  Kings  XV.  13 :  The  Queen  Mother  held  the  high  rank  of 
a  gehira  (comp.  2  Kings  x.  13,  Jer.  xiii.  18  and  xxix.  2,  where 
she  is  placed  side  by  side  with  the  king).  The  sultäna  icälida 
holds  the  same  position.  Also  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions 
the  Queen  Mother  repeatedly  appears  as  a  political  power,  and 
Assyrian  letters  prove  her  important  position.  In  the  heathen 
Oriental  conception  of  the  world  the  Queen  Mother  is  the  same 

233 


234      GLOSSES   UPON   THE   BOOKS   OF   KINGS,   ETC. 

as  the  Queen  of  Heaven  and  mother-goddess  in  the  celestial 
household.i 

1  Kings  xvi.  34  (sacrifice  to  the  building?),  see  p.  158. 

1  Kings  xviii.  28 :  "  To  cut  themselves  with  knives "  is 
fbrbidden  as  a  heathen  custom  in  Deut.  xiv.  1,  In  the  annals 
öf  Sargon  it  is  said  of  a  mourning  Babylonian  :  "he  crouched 
down  upon  the  earth,  rent  his  garment,  took  the  knife,  and 
broke  forth  into  cries."  Upon  other  gestures  of  mourning,  see 
Ezek.  xxvii.  31, 

1  Kings  xix.  8  ;  see  pp.  2,  n.  1,  98. 

^  In  1  Kings  xix.  1 9,  EHsha  is  ploughing  Avith  twelve  pair  of  oxen 
when  Elijah  casts  his  mantle  upon  him.  Calling  from  the  plough  is  a 
motif  in  the  call  to  the  Bringer,  or  the  Foreteller  (nuhi),  of  the  new 
era  (Midas^  Cincinnatus).  'V^'e  find  the  same  motif  in  the  call  to 
Saul.  In  1  Sam.  xi.  5,  he  comes  "  behind  the  oxen  home  from 
the  field,"  when  the  messengers  meet  him.  The  meaning  was 
discussed  p.  59,  i.  ;  com}),  pp.  235  f.  ^ 

1  Kings  XX.  22,  26  ;  see  pp.  45,  i.  f. 

1  Kings  xxii.  10  ff. :  The  kings  sit  under  the  gate  (comp, 
flg.  135),  and  the  prophets  prophesy  before  them,  one  of 
them  by  means  of  a  symbolic  action.  Clearly  a  historic  picture. 
They  sit  (in  ceremonial  vestments)  "upon  a  threshing-floor.'' - 
We  conjecture  that  this  is  a  technical  expression  for  the  semi- 
circle  of  the  ceremonious  divan.^ 

Elijah  and  Elisha 

In  the  later  conception  Elijah  ^  was  held  to  be  not  only  the 
prophet    {iiabf),    but    to    be    the    forerunner,    of  the   expected 

^  The  East  also  recognised  feminine  rule.  In  Phoenicia  it  was  specially  usual  ; 
from  thence  it  spread  its  unhealthy  influence  over  Israel  (Jezebel)  and  Judah 
(Athaliah),  see  p.  249. 

^  I  Chron.  repeatedly  C'3C'i  before  pJ3,  and  the  Sept.  translates  only  "they 
sat  upon  a  threshing-floor. " 

•'  This  would  make  Klostermann's  conjecture  fall  through.  Comp.  B.N.T., 
14  f.  upon  Rev.  xii.  (heavenly  counsel),  where  it  is  asserted  by  Shemoth  Rabba 
upon  Exod.  iv.  28,  "  Some  time  God  will  group  the  eiders  of  Israel  Hke  a 
threshing-floor  [that  is,  according  to  what  follows,  in  a  semicircle],  and  give  them 
the  law  as  their  president." 

*  Upon  the  political  importance  of  his  appearance  against  the  power  of  Tyre, 
see  Winckler,  K.A.  T.,  3rd  ed.,  248  ff.,  and  compare  above,  pp.  215  f.  Elijah  and 
PJlisha  both  came  from  and  worked  in  districts  which  were  then  under  the  influences 
of   Damascus  (Elijah  from  Thisbe  in  Gilead,   Elisha  from   Abel    Mehola).     The 


ELIJAH    AND   ELISHA  235 

Deliverer.  Mal.  iv.  5,  "  I  will  send  Elijah  the  prophet  before 
the  day  of  Yahveh  come/"  This  was  the  most  populär  sentence 
about  the  awaited  Messiah.  Therefore  it  was  that  the  whole 
bearing  of  John  the  Baptist  raade  him  appear  to  be  Elijah. 

The  Biblical  chroniclers  interwove  the  motifs  of  the  expected 
Deliverer  with  his  figure ;  and  later  editors,  above  all  the 
Rabbi nical  exegetes,  amplified  them. 

if;   We  draw  attention  to  the  following : — 

1.  In  the  text  before  us  Elijah  appears  entirely  as  a  deus  ex 
machina.  The  mysterious  birth  attributed  to  him  by  the  Rabbis 
(Berach.  58a),  "without  father  or  mother,"  corresponds  to  the 
motifs  Iviiown  to  us ;  see  pp.  90  ff. 

2.  He  is  fed  by  ravens  by  the  command  of  God,  and  drinks  from 
the  brook.  The  drying  up  of  the  brook  should  be  related  intro- 
ductory  to  the  time  of  drought.  The  miraculous  food  has  no  direct 
connection  with  the  following  context.  They  teil  in  the  language 
of  that  time  the  miraculous  direct  protection  of  the  prophet  by 
God.^  The  chief  event  is  the  supply  of  water,  for  the  failure  of 
which  preparation  is  made.  And  we  know  the  mythological 
meaning  (to  which  attention  was  long  ago  drawn)  of  the  raven  wdth 
the  beaker  in  the  starry  heavens,  which  the  Hydra  prevents  from 
drinking.  Hygin  relates  how  Apollo  cursed  the  raven  who  was  to 
feed  him,  because  he  neglected  the  command  to  supply  him  with 
water. 

3.  The  time  of  drought  lasted  three  years.  It  is  a  time  of  curse, 
preceding  the  deliverance.  To  this  is  added  the  second  sign  from 
God,  "fire  from  Yahveh/'  1  Kings  xviii.  38,  which  consumes  Elijah's 
sacrifice.  The  slaying  of  450  (surely  a  motif-number,  possibly 
confused  from  350  ?)  priests  of  Baal,  executed  by  Elijah,  alone  and 
single-handed,  with  the  sword  (xviii.  40,  xix.  l),  seals  the  victory 
of  "Yahveh  over  Baal.  Do  not  the  motifs,  adorning  historic  fact, 
here  also  signify  a  deliverance } 

4.  Upon  the  forty  days'  journey  to  the  mountain  of  God,  see 
p.  68,  i. 

5.  Elisha's  call  by  the  mantle  of  the  prophet,  see  p.  190.  As  in 
the  case  of  Saul,  he  is  called  from  the  plough,  1  Kings  xix.  1 9  ff. 

work  of  Jesus  in  the  district  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  and  southward  is  connected 
with  memories  of  EHjah  and  Ehsha.  The  heathen  as  well  have  a  part  in  his  work 
there.  For  Elijah  and  Elisha  also  there  were  no  narrow  frontiers.  The  story  of 
the  widow  in  Sarepta  and  of  the  healing  of  Naaman  indicate  perhaps  lines  of 
religious  connection  between  Israel  and  Damascus.  Unfortunately,  we  have  no 
evidence  from  Damascus. 

1  Legend  says  that  Paulus  Eremita  was  fed  for  sixty  years  by  ravens.  We 
might  conclude  from  Ps.  cxlvii.  9  and  Job  xxxviü.  41  that  the  populär  legends  in 
Israel  looked  upon  the  raven  as  the  special  bird  of  God. 


236     GLOSSES   UPON  THE   BOOKS   OF   KINGS,   ETC. 

Upon  the  meaning  of  this,  see  pp.  59,  i-  i-  ',  comp.  p.  234.  "Twelve 
pair  of  oxen  were  before  him,  and  he  himself  foUowed  the  twelfth." 
Ehsha  slays  and  roasts  the  pair  of  oxen,  using  the  wood  of  the 
plough  for  fire.  This  motif  is  incomprehensible  to  us ;  it  corre- 
sponds  to  the  slaying  of  the  oxen  of  the  plough  when  Saul  was 
called. 

6.  In  this  connection  2  Kings  ü.  23  f.  should  be  specially  noted. 
Forty-two  boys  are  torn  to  pieces  by  bears,  because  they  have  mocked 
Ehsha  as  "bald-head."  No  one  will  regret  a  Solution  of  the  story. 
It  appears  to  us  certain  that  motifs  of  the  cycle  of  the  year  lie 
before  us.  The  monuments  in  the  district  of  Lebanon  attest  the 
bear  as  the  animal  representing  the  critical  solstitial  points  ;  see 
p.  99,  i-  The  tonsure — for  it  is  to  this  the  story  refers — belongs  to 
tiie  sun-man.      Read  Plutarch,  T/teseits,  and  comp.  p.  172,  above.  ^^ 

The  historical  and  the  religious  importance  of  Elijah  is  in  no 
way  diminished  by  unveiling  motifs  of  mythology  and  fable. 

The  motifs  form  the  nimbus  in  which  a  past  age  enveloped 
him,  in  order  (by  means  of  the  simple  ideology  of  the  ancient 
World)  to  make  his  importance  understood  by  the  people.^  For 
US  this  nimbus  is  far  outshone  by  the  glory  which  surrounds  him 
from  the  standpoint  and  teaching  of  Jesus  and  the  Christian 
idea  of  the  world. 

Elijah's  ascension  ^  "in  the  whirlwind"  (2  Kings  ii.  1  ff'.). 
What  Elisha  saw  was  a  vision,  as  in  vi.  17,  which  they  could 
see  *•'  whose  eyes  Yahveh  had  opened."  The  prophet  sees  a 
Hery  chariot  and  fiery  horses.  He  cries :  "  My  father,  my 
father !  the  chariots  of  Israel  and  the  horsemen  ! "  The  words 
primarily  do  not  apply  to  Elijah,  but  to  the  heavenly  appear- 
ance.  As  the  stars  were  held  to  be  warriors  of  Yahveh  Sabaoth 
(p.  133),  so  the  prophet  sees  in  this  appearance  the  heavenly 
war-hosts  of  the  people  of  God.  When  the  vision  was  past, 
Elijah  was  taken  up  into  heaven.  It  is  not  said  that  he  ascended 
in  one  of  the  chariots  with  fiery  horses. 

1  Kings  XX.  34 :  The  huzot  of  the  Israelite  merchants  in 
Damascus  were    bazaars   and  parts  of  the    city  (Arabian  suk) 

^  And  how  delicate  is  the  Biblical  story  in  contrast  to  the  later  Jewish  em- 
bellishment,  which  makes  Elijah  the  Sun-man,  representative  of  fruitfulness,  who 
is  present  at  circumcisions,  and  which  links  with  a  flippant  song  (Gadja  song)  in 
the  liturgy  of  the  Passover  the  expectation  of  the  return  of  Elijah,  which  sings  the 
cycle  of  the  fate  of  worlds,  finally  ending  in  equalising  justice. 

^  Upon  the  motif  word  np*?  for  snatching  away,  i  Kings  ii.  ii,  see  p.  240,  i. 


THE   MOABITES  237 

reserved  for  strangers  (conditionally  with  exemption  from  taxes) 
near  the  bazaars  of  the  natives. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  there  were  the  Jondachi  of  the  markets  in 
üriental  mercantile  eitles  (Winckler,  O.L.Z.^  1 901 ,  Sp.  143).  We  meet 
with  exactly  the  same  institution  in  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights,  and 
to  the  present  day  the  varioiis  goods  have  their  particular  parts  of  the 
bazaars;  see  Holzinger,  Archäologie,  132.  Herodotus^  xi.  112, 
records  speciahsed  bazaars  of  the  Syrians  in  Memphis.  Compare 
also  our  ancient  city  divisions,  tanners'  quarter,  and  so  on. 

2  Kings  iii. :  The  Moabites:  see  Gen.  xix.  30  ff.i  David,  by 
force  of  arms  (2  Sani.  viii.  3),  brought  the  Moabites  under  his 
rule.  TJie  mysterious  passage,  2  Sam.  viii.  2,  of  the  measuring, 
probably  means  that  one-third  of  the  country  feil  to  the  con- 
queror  and  two-thirds  remained  with  Moab."  The  victory 
would  certainly  be  sealed  according  to  Oriental  custom  by  the 
introduction  of  the  worship,  therefore  of  the  worship  of  Yahveh. 
The  inscription  of  Mesha,  in  fact,  records  from  a  later  tinie  that 
vessels  of  Yahveh-worship  were  carried  awav  from  the  Moabite 
city  of  Nebo. 

Contrariwise,  David  brought  Moabite  sanetuaries  to  Jerusalem 
(2  Sam.  viii.  10  fF.).  These  trophies  were  fatal  in  Solomon's 
time  ;  they  were  probably  primarily  used  for  idolatrous  purposes 
in  circles  of  immigrated  Moabites  (1  Kings  xi.  5  :  worship  of 
Chemosh  in  Jerusalem).  According  to  the  Book  of  Ruth, 
David  was  himself  of  Moabite  descent.  We  have  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  authenticity  of  the  statement,  though  one  would  have 
expected  a  hint  of  it  in  1  Sam.  xxii.  3  f.,  where  David  sought 
refuge  "  for  father  and  mother ''  in  Moab.  With  the  fall  of  the 
kingdom  of  David,  Moab  naturally  became  again  independent. 
But  during  the  rule  of  the  dynasty  of  Omri  it  was  again  put 
under  tribute  by  the  Northern  Kingdom.     Omri  subdued  the 

'  Upon  the  following  compare  Buhl,  article  on  Mesha  and  Moab  in  Hauck, 
R.Pr.Th.,  3rd  ed.,  where,  however,  the  parts  agreeing  with  the  inscriptions  are 
to  be  modified  according  to  the  following  ;  in  the  same  way,  the  article  on  Mesha 
by  Driver  and  the  article  on  Moab  by  G.  A.  Smith,  Wellhausen,  and  Cheyne  in 
Enc.  Bibl.,  and  Winckler,  K.A.T.,  3rded.,  particulaily  pp.  251  ff.,  where  the 
views  expressed  in  Gesch.  Isr.,  i.,  specially  upon  2  Kings  iii.,  are  modified. 

2  Winckler,  Gesch.  Isr.,  ii.  206,  n.  3.  "  He  nieasured  off  §  to  death  and  the 
third  to  life  "  is  perhaps  simply  the  technical  expression  for  this  division  at  the 
conclusion  of  peace. 


238      GLOSSES    UPON    THE    BOOKS   OF   KINGS,    ETC. 

Moabite  king  Cheniosh-Khan  (r),  f'ather  of  the  Mesha,  well 
known  by  the  stone  inscription,  after  the  conquest  of  the  city 
of  Mahdaba  (ca.  882). 

Under  Mesha,  Ahab  renewed  the  subjection. 


Fig.  179.— Stone  of  Mesha. 

Two  Biblical  authoritics  (2  Kings  i.  1,  iii.  5)  then  record  that 
after  the  death  of  Ahab  the  king  of  Moab  refused  tribute. 
Joram  went  out  against  hini,  and  Jehoshaphat  of  Judah  lent  hini 
auxiliary  forces.^  The  canipaign  did  not  lead  to  the  oveithrow 
of  Moab ;  the  Mesha  Stone,  which  was  written  and  erected  after 
the  campaign  recorded  in  2  Kings  iii.  and  after  the  fall  of  the 

'  2  Chron.  xx.  presents  Jehoshaphat's  part  as  an  independent  campaign. 


THE    MESHA    STONE 


239 


house  of  Omri  (therefore  about  842),  much  more  records  an 
extension  of  the  territory  of  Moab  (towards  Höronen,  in  any 
case  into  Israelite  territory). 

The  Statements  of  Mesha  entirely  agree  with  those  of  the 
Bible.i 

The  Mesha  Stone  (fig.  179) 

Contents. — Thanksgiving  to  the  god  Chemosh  (to  whoni  Mesha, 
according  to  2  Kings  iii.,  sacrificed  liis  son  in  Order  to  appease  his 
wrath  and  to  obtain  the  victory),  who  had  helped  him  against  the 
eneiny,  and  aided  him  to  extend  his  kingdoni  and  to  estabhsh  it. 

1-3.      I    am    Mesha,  the  son  of 

Chemosh-Khän     (^?),"    king    of 

Moab,  from  Dibon.     My  father 

was    king    over    Moab    thirty 

years,     and    I     became     king 

after  my  father.   .   .   . 
4-9.       Omri,     king     of     Israel, 

oppressed  Moab  long,  for  Che- 
mosh was  angry  with  his  land. 

And  his  son  Ahab  succeeded 

him,  and  he  also  said  :  I  willop- 

press  Moab  ;  he  spake  so  in  my 

days,   when   I  saw    my  desire 

lipon  him  and  his  house. 
And   Israel  feil  for  ever.      Omri, 

however,   possessed    the    land 

of  Mahdeba  and  there  passed 

his  days,  and  the  days  of  his 

sons  forty  years.     And  Chem- 
osh restored  it  in  my  days.  .  .  . 


ca.  908-878.     Chemosh-Khän. 
ca.   878- .^^  (after  842).     Mesha. 


ca.  882.  Conquest  of  the  comitry 
about  Mehedeba  by  Omri  (not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible). 

876-855.  Ahab's  conquests  in 
Moab,  2  Kings  iii.  4  ;  Mesha 
pays  tribute  to  Ahab. 


854-843.  Joram  (and  Jehosha- 
phat),  against  iVIoab,  had  insti- 
tuted  payment  of  tribute  after 
the  death  of  Ahab  (2  Kings  iii. 
4  ;  comp.  i.  1 ).  According  to 
iii.  27,  Joram  was  finally  ob- 
liged  to  withdraw  (the 
"wrath"  veils  the  misad- 
venture).  Mesha  then  ad- 
vanced  triumphantly,  outlived 
the  overthrow  of  the  house  of 
Omri  by  Jehu  (see  above, 
"  Israel  feil  for  ever "),  re- 
conquered  Mahdeba  and  the 
territories  of  "^Atarot  and  Nebo 

1  This  acknowledged  fact  forms  a  weighty  evidence  for  the  reliability  of  the 
Biblical  historical  authorities.  Upon  2  Kings  iii.  see  p.  47.  Upon  the  text,  K.T., 
Ist  ed.,  100  ff. 

-  In  no  case  three  letters,  according  to  Lidzbarski's  examination  of  the  text,  but 
only  two  ;  therefore  not  Kamoshmalik,  possibly  p. 


240      GLOSSES   UPON    THE    BOOKS   OF    KINGS,    ETC. 

and  Jahad  and  JJoronen,  and 
made  the  Israelites  give  tribu- 
tary  Service  in  his  building 
Operations.  (Nothing  is  men- 
tioned  of  this  in  the  Bible.) 
ca.  842.  Erection  of  the  stone, 
which  celebrates  the  triumph. 

10  fF.  Bat  the  people  of  Gad  were  from  of  old  settled  in  the 
territory  of  'Atarot,  and  the  king  of  Israel  had  built  "^ Atarot.  Hut 
I  fought  against  the  eity  and  took  it,  and  slew  all  the  people  of  the 
city,  a  joy  to  Chemosh'  and  to  Moab.  And  I  brought  back  froni 
thence  the  'ar'el  ^  of  their  god  and  brought  it  before  Chemosh  in 
Cherijot.  And  I  transported  thither  the  people  of  Shrn  and  the 
people  of  FJrt.  And  Chemosh  spake  to  me  :  Go  and  take  Nebo 
against  Israel,  and  I  went  out  by  night  and  fought  against  them 
from  the  break  of  day  tili  noon,  and  I  took  it  and  slew  all ;  seven 
thousand  men  and  (boys)  and  women  and  (virgins)  and  maidens  ; 
for  I  had  dedicated  it  to  'Astar-Chemosh  ;  and  I  removed  from 
thence  the  ....'-  of  Yahveh  and  brought  them  before  Chemosh. 
And  the  king  of  Israel  had  built  Yahash,  and  made  himself  a  strong- 
hold  therein  when  he  fought  with  me.  Hut  Chemosh  drove  him 
before  me,  and  I  took  two  hundred  men  from  Moab,  all  his  princes, 
and  led  them  against  Yahash  and  conquered  it,  to  remove  it  to  Dibon. 
I  built  Krhh,  Hömathaje'arin  and  Homatha'ophel,  and  I  built  its 
gates  and  I  built  its  towers,  and  I  built  the  king's  palace,  and  I 
made  two  basins  for  water  inside  the  city.  Hut  there  Avas  no  well 
inside  the  city,  in  Krhh  ;  and  I  commanded  all  the  people  :  Make 
you  every  one  a  well  in  his  ovm  house.  And  I  bored  the  tunnel 
"(water-course)  for  Krhh  with  prisoners  from  Israel.  I  built 
'Aro'er  and  I  made  the  streets  of  Arnon.  I  built  Beth-Bamoth, 
for  it  was  destroyed.  I  built  Bezer,  for  it  had  fallen  to  ruin  ; 
princes  of  Dibon  there  were  fifty,  for  the  whole  of  Dibon  was 
subjugated.  And  I  ruled  over  one  hundred  (princes)  in  the  cities 
whicli  I  had  added  to  the  land.  And  I  built  Mhdbä  and  Beth- 
Diblaton  and  Beth-Ba'al-Me'on,  and  I  led  forth  from  thence  the 
shepherds  (})  ....  sheep  of  the  land.  And  in  Horonen  sat 
....  and  ....  Chemosh  commanded  me  :  Go,  fight  against 
l^öronen.  And  I  went  down  ....  and  Chemosh  (gave  it  back) 
in  my  days,  and  I  went  up  from  thence  to  .   .   .   .   ?  ?  and  I   .   .   .    . 

1  'jxiN,  usually  interpreted  as  "shrine"  also  at  line  17-lS,  should  probably  be 
cotnplemented  with  ''?xik.  According  to  Sellin,  Erlr.  der  Atisgrahingen ,  p.  36, 
portable  altars  like  that  represented  in  fig.  115,  pp.  346  f.,  i.,  should  be  understood. 
H.  Grimme  in  the  Kath.  Litt.  Rwidschan,  1904,  pr.  347,  sees  in  arV/  a  person 
(priest?)  who  was  carried  off. 

2  The  finals  of  line  17  and  beginning  of  line   18  supplemented  by  line   12,  see 


I. 


MOAB  241 

2  Kings  xiii.  20  shows  that  at  a  later  time  also  Moab  inade 
great  trouble  for  Isi-ael  in  manv  severe  battles.  The  cuneiforni 
inscriptions  off'er  some  matevial  for  the  further  history  of  the 
Moabites. 

In  tlie  middle  of  tlie  eighth  Century  Moab  was  ruled  by  inde- 
pendent  '•' kings."  Tiglath-Pileser  names  Salamänu  of  Moab 
amongst  the  kings  who  bring  tribute  to  him  during  the  campaign 
against  Daniascus  (732,  at  the  same  time  as  Ja-u-ha-zi  of  Ja-u-da-ai, 
that  is,  Joahaz  of  Judali)  ;  see  K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  34.  Twenty  years 
Uiter  we  find  Moab,  hke  PhiHstia,  Judah,  and  Edom,  taking  part  in 
the  insurrection  against  Assyria  (713-711),  led  by  Azuri  of  Ashdod 
(see  K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  41);  bat  in  the  campaign  of  701  Sennacherib 
names  Kammusu-nadab  of  Moab  amongst  the  tributaries  of  the 
Westland;  see  K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  44.  Esarhaddon  records  that,  like 
Manasseh  of  Judah  and  many  others,  so  also  Muzuri  of  Moab  had 
to  give  hini  tribute  in  labour  for  the  building  of  his  armoury  (see 
K.T.,  2nd  ed.,  52)  ;  and  Asurbanipal  praises  a  Moabite  king, 
because  he  has  proved  a  faithful  vassal  in  war  against  the  Arabian 
Kedar,  who,  with  the  Nebajot  (see  Gen.  xxv.  13),  overran  the 
district  of  Judah  and  the  hinterland  of  Moab  in  the  last  period  of 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  (G.  Smith,  Histori/  of  Asurbanipal,  p.  288  = 
Cyl.  B,  viii.  37  ;  the  name  put  together  with  Kammasu,  i.e. 
Chemosh,  is  unfortunately  mutilated).  At  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  the  Moabites,  like  the  Edomites,  are  named  as  malicious 
onlookers  (Ezek.  xxv.  8;  compare,  however,  Jer.  xl.  11).  Together 
with  Edom,  Amnion,  and  other  tribes,  tliey  overran  the  conquered 
territory  of  Judah  during  the  Exile. 

Chemosli  was  the  Ba'^al  of  the  Moabites,  a  stern  war-god,  who 
probably  reflected  the  character  of  the  Moabite  people.  Captive 
enemies  were  slain  before  his  altars  (Mesha  inscription,  line  11). 
According  to  2  Kings  iii.,  Mesha  in  time  of  calamity  in  war  saeri- 
ficed  his  own  son  before  Chemosh.  Tlie  deity  L"10D  "int^'y^  vvho 
appears  together  with  him  npon  the  Mesha  Stone,  is  probably  his 
feminine  correlative,  a  warlike  Ishtar,  to  Avhom  the  captives  of  war 
were  dedicated  before  their  slaughter.  The  name  Ba'al  Peor  may 
be  an  epithet  for  Chemosh  ''  the  Lord  of  Peor."  The  name  of  the 
city  Nebo  in  Moab  is  not  an  evidence  of  the  worship  of  Nebo  in 
Moab  (contrary  to  Buhl,  I.e.,  and  Hommel,  G.G.G.,  p.  39);  the 
name  may  be  the  remains  of  a  former  Babylonian  civilisation  in  the 
Westland,  like  the  names  of  the  Mountain  of  Nebo  and  of  the 
priestly  city  of  Nob. 

The  inscription  of  Mesha  attests  an  advanced  civilisation  in  Moab 
of  the  ninth  Century.  In  periods  of  independent  development 
Canaan  had  emancipated  itself  from  the  Babylonian  cuneiform 
writing,  as  the  Amarna  letters  give  evidence,  and  lately  some 
discoveries  in  Palestine  show  it  in  an  earlier  epoch.  The  Mesha 
Stone  shows,  like  the   Panammü  inscription  of  Zenjirli,  an  alpha- 

VOI,.     II.  16 


242      GLOSSES   UPON   THE   BOOKS   OF   KINGS,   ETC. 

betic  writing  gi'aven  in  basalt  (the  origin  of  our  Hebrew  square 
writing).  The  inscriptions  also  show  that  the  Moabites  understood 
biiilding  strongholds  with  gates  and  towers,  and  making  artificial 
roads  (a  me.si/lat  was  built  at  Arnon). 

2  Kings  V.  :  Naaman.  see  p.  217,  i.,  n.  3,  and  comp,  the  healing 
of  Gilgamesh  at  the  bathing-place  of  the  Holy  Island,  p.  217,  i. 
2  Kings  V.  12  ;  see  p.  206,  i. 

2  Kings  V.  17  f. :  Naaman  wishes  to  take  two  mule.s'  bürden 
of  sacred  earth  with  hini,  in  order  to  build  an  altar  to  Yahveh 
in  Daniascus.  Elisha  grants  the  request.  Only  in  the  ques- 
tion  of  making  obeisance  he  prays  for  indulgence.  When  he 
accompanies  his  king  as  knight  on  Service  into  the  teniple  of 
Rimmon,  he  will  be  obliged  to  kneel  also.  But  in  spirit  the 
act  of  reverence  is  to  be  to  Yahveh.  This  is  the  meaning  of 
the  passage  (see  Klostermann  upon  the  passage).  Rimmon 
(Sept.  Remman)  is  the  "Canaanite"  (Amorite)  god  of  storni, 
who  is  also  called  Adad  ;  see  p.  124,  i.  According  to  one  passage 
he  is  special  tutelary  god  of  Damascus.  Zech.  xii.  11,  lament 
for  Hadad-Rimmon  =Tammuz,  comp.  p.  99,  i.,  and  'En-Rimmon 
in  Joshua  xv.  32  ^  are  e^■idence  of  an  ancient  Canaanite  worship 
of  this  god  of  Storni. - 

2  Kings  vi.  25  :  During  the  siege  of  Samaria  food  became  dear. 
But  they  had  not  eaten  either  the  heads  of  asses  or  doves'  düng,  as 
the  newest  eommentaries  still  assume  (also  Benzinger,  Könige, 
upon  the  passage).  The  passage  is  corrupt.  iijon  should  be  read 
iDn;  that  is,  homer,  the  dry  measure.  To  this  belongs  G''iV"in. 
in  which  word,  according  to  Gen.  xl.  l6,  a  species  of  corn  is  veiled. 

K'X"i  is  the  remains  of  t^''n''nJ,  niust ;  the  ^  kab  belongs  to  this. 
Therefore  a  homer  of  corn,  like  <i  ^  kab  of  must,  was  exorbitanth' 
dear.     Thus  Winckler,  Krit.  Sc/iriffeii,  ii.  35. 

2  Kings  vi.  27  confirms  the  correctness  of  this  reading.  Ahab 
asks :  With  what  sliall  I  help  thee,  with  something  from  the 
threshing-floor  or  from  the  wine-press  ? 

2  Kings  vii.  1  ff.,  see  p.  191,  i- 

2  Kings  viii.  13:  "But  what  is  f/ii/  servant,  the  (log."  KaJbika, 
"  thy  dog,"  is  in  Assyrian  letters  an  expression  of  dcvotion.  Sept. 
strengthens  it,  as  in  2  Sam.  ix.  8  :  "dead  dog." 

2  Kings  ix.  13  :  Garments  were  laid  down  upon  the  road  for  a 
royal  progress,  as  in  Matt.  xxi.  8. 

'  To  be  read  thus,  instead  of  'ain  we-Rimmon,  with  Holzinger,  upon  this 
passage. 

*  The  form  of  name  Rimmon  is  also  attested  on  the  Amarna  tablets,  see  Peiser, 
O.L.Z.,  1898,  276. 


GLOSSES   UPON   THE    BOOKS   OF    KINGS       24^3 

2  Kings  ix.  27  (Gur),  see  p.  343,  i.,  n.  4.  2  Kings  xvi.  3,  see  below. 
2  Kings  xvi.  10  ff.  :  The  altav  of  Ahaz  built  after  a  Damascene 
pattern,  see  p.  345,  i. 

2  Kings  xvi.  18  :  In  consideration  of  the  king  of  Assur, 
Ahaz  makes  innovations  in  the  Teniple.  Was  a  visit  from  the 
Assyrian  king  expected  in  the  Teniple  ?  In  any  case,  the 
passage  shows  that  the  politica!  alliance  resulted  in  falling 
away  and  paganisni. 

2  Kings  xvii.  6  ;  comp.  p.  278,  i. 

!2  Kings  xvii.  6,  xviii.  11  :  Sargon  carr/ed  them  aicaij  to 
Halali  and  the  Habur,  the  river  ofGozaii,  a?Hl[i)i]  the  inouniain-s 
(Sept.  ev  opoi<i)  of  the  Medes.  But  1  Chron.  vi.  [5],  26 
records  that  Tiglath-Pileser  carried  away  the  Reubenites  and 
the  Gaddites  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  in  TOn.  -\X1T\ 
and  N"in  to  the  river  of  Gozan  ;  see  p.  248,  The  .Separation  of 
the  "river  of  Habor""  froni  the  "river  of  Gozan"  rests  upon  a 
misapprehension.  The  parallel  passage  2  Kings  xv,  29  says 
simplv :  Tiglath-Pileser  carried  them  away  into  Assyria. 
2  Kings  xix.  12  and  Isa.  xxxvii.  12  name  Gozan,  together 
with  Haran  and  Rezeph  and  Eden,  as  one  country  subdued  by 
the  Assyrians. 

Cuneiforni  writings  inention  a  city  of  Gozan  in  the  district 
of  the  Eiiphrates.'  It  is,  in  any  case,  treating  of  Babylonian 
countrv.  Probablv  by  the  "  mountains  of  the  Medes '""  the 
actual  countrv  of  the  Medes  is  not  nieant,  but  rather  the 
districts  of  Suleiniania  lying  not  very  far  froni  the  other  places 
enumerated  and  which  Shalmaneser  had  conquered  shortly 
before.-  Here  also  (comp.  p.  219)  the  events  of  the  years 
734-33  and  722  are  confused. 

2  Kings  xvii.  17  :  They  eaused  their  sons  and  their  dmighters 
to  pass  through  the  fire.  xvi.  3  relates  the  same  thing  of  Ahaz, 
Human  sacrifice  is  not  to  be  understood,  but  the  ceremony  of 

^  For  the  evidence  in  cuneiform  writings  of  Guzana  in  the  district  of  the 
Euphrates,  see  article  on  Gosan,  R.P.Th.,  3rd  ed.  ;  in  addition,  II.  R.  53,  43=^: 
Guzana  =  Nasibina.  It  may  be  identical  with  the  Gauzanitis  of  Ptolemy,  v.  17,  4, 
edited  by  Car.  Müller,  1901  (between  Chaboras  and  Saocoras),  Kaushan  of 
to-day. 

'^  Otherwise  in  Kittel,  Könige  (Nowack's  Handk.),  p.  274. 


244      GI.OSSES   UPON   THE    BOOKS    OF   KINGS.   ETC. 

leaping  through  the  firo  at  the  heathen  festival  of  the  solstice ; 
see  p.  348,  i. 

2  Kings  xvii.  24  fF. :  Colonisation  of  Samaria  bv  Babylonians. 
Peihaps  this  lecord  relates  to  the  time  of  Sennacherib  after 
the  overthrow  of  Babylon.  Kuthah  was  closely  alHed  to 
Ba.bylon  (p.  139,  i.).  Sepharvaim  is  perhaps  Sippar  on  the 
Enphrates  (double  citv  .''),  the  Abu  Habba  of  to-day.^ 

2  Kings  xvii.  30 :  Men  of  Babylon  vutde  Succot/ibenotJi. 
^Ve  may  expect  the  cult  of  Babylon,  Marduk-worship  therefore. 

VV'inckler,  M.F.A.G.,  1901^  3l6  f.,  assumes  that  Succoth  is  the 
same  as  Siccuth  in  Arnos  v.  26,  that  is,  Nebo  (corresponding  in 
the  Westland  to  Marduk  of  Babylon,  therefore  =  VVinter-Marduk 
=  Tammnz,  who  was  lamented).  If,  however,  heiiofh  may  be 
explained  as  hanilu,  a  name  of  the  Belit  Ishtar  as  Jensen  has  it, 
Z.A.,  iv.  .'>.5!2,  then  we  shoiild  rather,  in  connection  with  Ishtav- 
worship,  linderstand  huts  for  the  Teniple  prostitutes. 

2  Kings  xvii.  30  :  The  people  of  Cutft  itntde  Nergal.  In  a 
coninientarv  on  the  Pentateucb,  Maiinoiiides  (twelfth  Century) 
founds  himself  upon  primitive  books  of  the  heathen  (he  means 
Nabataean  u  ritings),  according  to  which  the  Cuthites  professed 
sun-worship.-  This  is  correct.  Upon  the  solar  characteristics 
of  Nergal,  see  pp.  30,  i. ;  32,  i.  In  a  review  of  the  exiles,  to  the 
later  Jews  the  land  of  Cuthim  was  current  as  clean  ; '  upon  the 
other  band,  on  account  of  their  niingling  with  the  heathen,  the 
Samaritans  were  scornfully  called  Cuthim.  Ashima,  Nibhaz,  and 
Tartak  contradict  the  meaning. 

2  Kings  xvii.  31  :  Anaiiunelech.  If  the  name  denotes  a 
Babvloiiian  and  not  rather  a  Svrian  divinity,  this  contains  the 
Single  Biblical  evidence  of  the  Babylonian  god  Anu.  Thedivine 
name  Adrammelech  mav  perhaps  be  changed  to  Arad-malik  or 
to  Adad-malik.^ 

2  Kings  xviii.  4 :  Nehushtan,  a  serpent  symbol,  like  the 
brazen  serpent  (Numb.  xxi.  8  f.).^  It  is  assumed  that  it  is 
treating     of     an     officially     recognised     symbol     of     Yahveh. 

^  Or  should  we,  with  Wiiickler,  AUt.  Unters.,  97  ff.,   105  ft. ,  undersland  it  to 
be  the  Babylonian  deportation  mentioned  in  Ezra  iv.  S-IO? 
-  Baba  Bathra,  91a  ;  comp.  Herrschensohn,  nia^n  yna,  p.  222. 
■*  In  Opposition  to  the  heathen  country,  comp.  Herrschensohn,  /oc.  ciL,  139. 
■*  See  K.A.T.,  ßrd  ed.,  84,  n.  2,  408,  n.  i. 
*  Upon  the  form  of  the  word,  see  Hommel,  G.G.G.,  p.  132. 


GLOSSES    UPON  THE   BOOKS   OF  KINGS       245 

Historically  the  matter  is  still  obscure.  As  tiitelary  god  of 
Der,  the  city  of  Ann  (see  pp.  102,  i.  ;  104,  i.,  n.  1),  a  serpent 
god  is  named,  called  "Lord  of  Life."  ^  Figs.  149  and  L52 
show  two  serpent  monuments  froni  Petra. 

2  Kings  xviii.  li,  17,  see  jJ.  34^2,  i. 

2  Kings  xviii.  17  fF.  Peiser,  O.L.Z.,  lyOS,  41  ff.,  reviews  the 
question  whether  a  knowledge  of  the  Assyrian  language  in  Jeru- 
salem of  that  time  is  to  be  assumed.  In  v.  26  "  Assyrian  "  may 
have  stood  and  been  replaced,  as  often  happens,  by  Aramtean 
(because  later  both  were  the  same). 

2  Kings  xviii.  3-i  ;  comp.  Hommel,  G.G.G.,  89,  n.  3.  Sehia])arelli, 
Astronomie,  p.  67. 

2  Kings  xix.  12  and  Isa.  xxxvii.  12  nanie  four  Babylonian  districts 
or  eitles  as  places  of  banishment :  (iozan,  Haran,  Rezej)h,  and 
ßene  Eden  ;  see  2  Kings  xvii.  6. 

2  Kings  xix.  27,  see  p.  276,  i.,  n.  3. 

2  Kings  xix.  37:  Upon  the  niurder  of  Sennacherib,  see 
[).  227.  Fig.  180  shows  his  .successor  Esarhaddon  :  the  king 
as  a  giant,  the  captives  as  dwarfs  held  by  the  king  bv  iron  rings 
fastened  through  their  chins ;  compare  with  this  p.  294. 

2  Kings  XX.  7:  The  prophet  is  also  a  physician ;  he  pre- 
scribes  a  fig  plaster. 

2  Kings  XX.  12:  Enibassy  froni  Berodach-baladan  (that  is, 
Merodach-baladan  of  Isa.  xxxix.  1);  Babylonian,  Marduk- 
Apaliddina.-  He  sent  letters  and  presents.  Upon  the 
meaning  of  this,  see  p.  221,  n.  1.  The  n^DD  n^l  into  which 
Hezekiah  leads  the  niessengers  is  the  Assyrian  h/t  nalmnti, 
the  treasure-house,  where  also  costly  spices  and  oil  were  kept.=^ 
Probably  being  taken  through  "  the  house  of  his  arniour "  was 
niore  iniportant  to  the  niessengers,  for  a  political  alliance  was 
in  question. 

2  Kings  XX.  20  :  The  conduit  of  Hezekiah.  According  to 
2  Chron.  xxxii.  30  this  building  relates  to  the  Siloani  tunnel, 
in  which,  in  1880,  the  oldest  Hebrew  inscription  was  found  by 
H.  Guthe. 

2  Kings  xxi.  5,  comp,  xxiii.  5  :  Altars  for  all  the  host  of  heaven 
were    built    in    the    fore-court    of  the   Temple   at  Jerusalem.'* 

\  Ä^.,  iii.  238,  42.  2  See  fig.  1S7,  p.  274. 

'  Comp.  I  Kings  x.  10,  and  see  Benzinger,  Könige,  upon  the  passage. 
■*  Comp.  Jer.  viü.  2  ;  Deut.  xvii.  3  ;  Job  xxxi.  26. 


246      GLOSSES   UPON   THE    BOOKS    OF    KINGS,    ETC. 


This  did  not  mean  uprooting  the  \\orship  of  Yahveh  to  the 
people.  The  populär  religion  simply  took  Yahveh  Sabaoth 
literally:  Lord  of  the  heavenly  host.^  The 
coinmandinent  in  Exod.  xx.  4  related  to 
that  sort  of  prayer.  In  Exod.  xxii.  23 
'^rarsum  savs  :  "  Thoii  shalt  not  make  for 
worship  the  picture  of  sun,  and  nioon,  con- 
stellations  and  planets,  nor  of  angels,  which 
serve  before  me."  -  According  to  Isa.  iii. 
18,  the  wonien  of  Jerusalem  wore  little 
nioons  of  gold;  Judges  viii.  21,  certainly  in 
a  critically  debatable  passage,  says  the  war 
cameis  carried  them  upon  their  necks. 

The  growing  half  moon  is  to  be  uuderstoodj 

which  to  the  present  day  is  current  as  symbol 

of  orowth  and  fertility.     The  Hilliilim  in  the 

autunin  festival,  Lev.  xix.  24  and  Judges  ix.  27, 

Vir,    i8o  -Stele  of  vic     ''^''^  perhaps  hallelujah  (see  pp.  37,  i.  ;   1 10,  i.  ; 

töryofEsarhaddoiiafter    ^H  agi'ee,   at    any  rate    originally,   with   the 

the  conquest  of  Egypt  moon  and  its  festivals  (see  Wellhausen,  Reste 

andTyre,  from  Zenjirli.    Arabische  Heidentums,  Y*\i.   107  ff.).      The  cres- 

Berlin    Museum.      Pii-   ^^^^^  ^^^j^^   .^^   j^^.,,.]^  ^f  t|^g   Turkish  Moham- 

soners :     Tirhakah     ot  ,  ^      \  \  a     ^  j 

Ethiopia  and    Ba'al   of  »"edans  appears  to  have   been    hrst    assumed 

Xyre.  with  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  in  1453. 

Mohammed  II.  then  took  it  as  a  symbol  of 

Ihe  city,  un  the  red  banner.'^     Yet  upon  the  first  Islamic  coins  and 

upon  the  Byzantine  coins  from  the  second  Century  b.c.  tili  the  third 

Century  a.d.  taken  over  by  Islam  the  crescent  moon  already  appears. 

By  some  the  symbol  is  referred  back  to  the  miraculous  Intervention 

üf  the  mooii-goddess  Hecate  at  the  siege  of  the  city  by  Philij)  II.  in 

the  year  339  b.c*     Since,  however,  the  cult  of  Hecate,  which  came 

'  Note  p.  134,  wherc  it  is  shown  that  later  they  took  trouble  to  re-write 
heathenish-sounding  names. 

-  The  Talmud  Tractate  Kosh  hashaiiah  24''  says  in  the  same  passage  :  Make 
tu  thyself  no  idols  after  the  likeness  of  the  spirils  who  serve  before  me  in  the 
heights  :  Ophanim  (periods  of  time),  Seraphim  (Isa.  vi.),  Chajjoth  (Ezra  i.),  and 
maller  hasherat  (serving  angel).  Jewish  quotations  show  that  they  knew  the 
Oriental  teaching  very  well,  and  that  in  later  times  they  held,  in  agreement 
with  the  Oriental  secret  doctrine,  that  the  phenomena  of  the  cosmos  are  personified 
powers  of  God. 

•'■  "  Münch.  Orient-Ges."  in  Zeitschrifl  Asien,  December  1902. 

•*  The  Persian  historian  Mirchond  asserts  a  specially  Turkish  origin,  according 
to  which  the  Turks  brought  the  crescent  moon  as  their  symbol  with  them  from 
Central  Asia, 


GLOSSES    ÜPON   THE    BOOKS    OF   KINGS       247 

from  Asia  Minor,  was  clearly  influenced  by  Ancient-Oriental  nioon 
worship,  a  Western  Asiatic  prototjpe  lies,  in  the  first  instance,  at 
the  root,  and  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  Ancient-Babylonian  seal 
cylinders,  like  modern  Babylonian  boiindary  stones,  shovv  the  crescent 
moon  as  insignia  (comp.  fig.  34  f.  amongst  others).  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  Islam  is  in  many  ways  linked  to  the 
Hobal  moon-cult  of  Mecca  (compare  the  lunar  calendar  of 
Mohammed),  which  corresponds  to  the  lunar  cult  of  Haran ;  see 
also  Job  xxxviii.  31  fF. 

The  Mazzalot,  wliich  are  named  together  with  sun  and 
moon  (Sept.  fxa^ovpioO,  Job  xxxviii.  32,  Mazzaroth),  are  the 
houses  of  the  zodiac  (lunar  stations,  or  the  stations  of  the 
solar  cycle). 

2  Kings  xxii.  8  ff. :  The  finding  of  the  book  of  the  law. 
The  question  of  the  relationship  of  this  discovered  codex  to 
the  Codices  of  the  Israel-Judah  Thora  has  been  led  into  new 
directions  by  the  work  of  Klostermann.  ^  In  any  case,  in  the 
story  it  is  treating  of  the  finding  of  an  original  codex  in 
the  archives  of  the  Temple  of  the  same  description  as  the 
authoritative  copy  of  the  law  of  the  kings,  which,  according 
to  Deut.  xvii.  18,  was  to  be  guarded  in  the  priest's  house  and 
of  which  the  king  was  to  have  a  copy  by  him.  Such  secret 
guarding  of  original  documents  was  to  preserve  the  law  from 
mutilation,  such  as  might  happen  to  it  in  copies  and  in  verbal 
Interpretation  (comp.  Deut.  xvii.  8  ff'.). 

The  cuneiform  texts  repeatedly  teil  of  the  finding  of 
forgotten  political  documents.  Ezra  vi.  1  f.  also  mentions  such 
an  event."^ 

2  Kings  xxiii.  4 :  The  idols  were  "  burnt  xvith  fire,  and  the 
ashes  scattered  in  Kidron.''''^  The  same  is  often  in  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  as  a  custom  of  the  kings. 

'  Essay  in  Neue  Kirchliche  Zeitschrift,  1897.  Der  Pentateiich,  Neue  Folge, 
Leipzig,  1906. 

^  An  inscription  of  Assurbanipal,  who  liked  tobe  repvesented  as  the  inaugurator 
of  a  new  era,  affords  an  instance  of  the  discovery  of  a  religious  document.  An 
Oracle  was  found  in  Susa  which  already,  1635  (1535),  years  before,  had  prophesied 
him  as  revenger  of  the  goddess  Nannaya  of  Erech  ;  now  "  the  time  was  fulfilled  " 
{iline  iinlu).  This  is  an  obvious  falsehood,  or  an  artificial  adjustment.  A  com- 
parison  of  this  event  with  the  finding  of  the  Law  under  Josiah,  as  is  occasionally 
suggested,  is  decidedly  to  be  rejected. 

2  To  be  read,  with  Klostermann,  as  "rnn  instead  of  'rn'a  ;  comp,  Winckler, 
Krit,  Schriften,  ii.  46. 


248     GLOSSES    UPON   THE   BOOKS   OF  KINGS,   ETC. 

Upon  2  Kings  xxiii.  10,  comp.  Jer.  vii.  31  (Hinnom);  see  Baedeker, 
Palesdiie. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  11  :  Tiie  horse.s  and  chariots  of  the  .sim  (comp, 
pp.  115,  i.  f.  and  156)arecultural  necessities  of  the  astral  heathen- 
worship.  Upon  the  worship  of  the  sun  in  ancient  Canaan, 
which  nanies  of  places  Hke  Beth-Shemesh  attest,  see  p.  350,  i. 
(Aniarna  period),  and  p.  349,  i.  (Baal  and  Moloch  as  solar 
divinities).  The  roof  of  the  house  (comp.  Jer.  xix.  13,  xxxii.  29  ; 
Zeph.  i.  5)  was  specially  suitable  for  star-'worship. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  13,  see  p.  47. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  29  f.  :  Necho,  king  of  Egypt.  This  is  Necho  II. 
Assurbanipal  mentions  Necho  I.  Ni-ku-u  shar  al  Me-im-pi  u 
al  Sa-ai,  king  of  Memphis  and  Sais.  Josiah  went  out  against 
Necho  and  feil  at  Megiddo  (or  at  the  seaport  city  Migdal) ; 
see  p.  200.  Upon  the  lament  for  the  Deliverer,  Josiah  (comp. 
2  Chron.  xxxv.  24,  and  Zech.  xii.  11),  see  pp.  99,  i.,  and  82. 

2  Kings  XXV.  8  :  "  The  captain  of  the  bodyguard,  the  '  ser\aiit '  «f 
the  king  of  Babylon."  "Servant"  here  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
minister,  like  ardii,  "  slave,"  and  corresponding  words  throiighout 
the  East.     Compare  the  seal  of  the  "  servant  "  of  Jeroboam,  p.  348,  i. 

The  Book  of  the  Chronicles 

We  have  to  thank  the  authority  of  the  Chronicles  for  some 
valuable  notices,^  amongst  others  : 

1  Chron.  xxi.  (20)  1  ff.  (David's  heroes),  see  pp.  82,  i.,  183. 
2  Chron.  ix.  I  ff.  (Solomoii's  riddle),  see  pp.  188  f  2  Chron.  xx.  1 
(Ammonites  in  alliance  with  Mesha),  see  p.  47.  2  Chron.  xxxv.  24  f. 
(lament  for  Josiah),  see  p.  82.  1  Chron.  xxviii.  2,  xxviii.  18,  xxxv.  3 
(for  understanding  the  ark),  see  pp.  124,  n.  3,  125,  130,  ii.  4. 
1  Chron.  xxviii.  1 1  ff",  (modeis  for  the  Temple  and  Gad's  pari  in 
the  building  of  the  sanctuary),  see  p.  132.  2  Chron.  iv.  6  (brazen 
sea),  see  p.  188.      2  Chron.  xxi.  12  (Elijah's  letter),  see  p.  302. 

1  Chron.  i.  9,  see  p.  288,  i.  1  Cln-on.  i.  27,  see  p.  28.5,  i.  1  Chron. 
V.  [6],  26,  the  j<-in,  nanied  together  with  Habur  (river  of  Gozan), 
and  Halali,  should  be  corrected  to  pn  (Haran),  Sept.,  De 
Legarde's  edition,  "Appav,  or  (with  F.  Hommel)  should  be  taken  as 
the  Mesopotamian  expression  for  pn,  for  we  have  pure  Meso- 
potamian  territory  -which  the  parallel  passage,  2  Kings  xv.  29, 
calls  rightly  "  Assyrian,"  as  during  the  period  of  the  Exile  it  was 
under  the    rule    of  Assyria.      Halah   cannot    be   identified,    but   is 

'   Cunij).  p.  192,   n.   I. 


CHRONICLES  049 

repeatedly  attested   in   the   cuneiforni  writings ;   the  correction  to 
n72   must  be  abandoned.^ 

1  Chron.  xv.  18,  20 :  Shemiramoth,  niasculine  name,  bearing 
soine  likeness  to  Sammuramat,  Semiramis.  The  Serairamis  of 
Ktesias  (wife  of  Ninus)  bears  the  mythological  featiires  of 
Ishtar.2  But  certainly  there  is  an  historical  foundation  for 
the  legendaiy  character,  which  is  not  yet  further  known  to  us. 
The  Near  East  recognised  queens  from  the  most  ancient  tinies. 
In  Phoenicia  we  meet  m  ith  feminine  rule,  occasionally  also  in 
Israel  and  Judah,  see  p.  233.  The  excavations  in  Susa  brought 
to  light  a  bronze  statue  weighing  n  tons  of  an  Elamite 
queen.  In  the  time  of  Adadnirari  a  figure  called  Semiramis 
(Sammuramat)  comes  to  the  fore,  whose  policy  was  directed 
against  Babylon,  lipon  the  statue  reproduced  fig.  -52  she  is 
expressly  mentioned,  which  is  noteworthy. 

2  Chrun.  i.  16  f.,  ste  p.  284,  i.  2  Chron.  xiv.  9,  see  p.  286  i. 
2  Chron.  xx.  1,  see  p.  47.  ' 

Ezra  i.  2  :  "  All  the  kingdoms  of  the  eurth  havc  been  given 
to  me  hij  Yahveh,  the  God  of  Heavenr  Schrader,  K.Ä.T., 
2nd  ed.,  372  f.,  has  rightly  connected  with  this  some  remarks 
upon  the  tolerance  of  Cyrus.  In  the  sixth  Century  a  wave  of 
monotheism  passed  over  the  whole  East ;  see  Monotheistkchen 
Strömungen,  pp.  44  ff. 

Ezra  iv.  8-10,  see  2  Kings  xvii.  24  (p.  244). 

Ezra  iv.  9  upon  Babylon  and  Elam,  see  above.  j)p.  292,   i.  ff.,  and 
301,  i.     If  it  is  really  the  name  of  a  eity,  Arak  is  Arku,  üri'ik  (Erich) 
the  present  Warka,  see  pp.   295,   i.  f.      Shushan  is  the  Shuslian  of 
the  cuneiform  writings,  cajjital   uf  the  land  of  Elani  froni  the  most 
ancient  times.     At  ])resent  being  excavated  by  a  French  e.xpedition. 

Ezra  iv.  10:  Osna^jpar  is  a  niutilatioji  of  Assurbanipal,  Greek 
Sardanapalus  ;  see  figs.  136',  I6I,  and  175. 

Ezra  vi.  2  :  Achmetha  is  Ecbatana,  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  tbe 
Medes,  Agamatanu  in  the  Behistun  inscription,  line  60.  According  to 
Herodotus,  i.  98,  the  battlements  of  tlie  walls  of  Ecbatana  were  de- 
corated  with  the  seven  coloursof  the  planets(conip.  })p.305,i.f  ),partly 
painted,  partly  overlaid  Avith  metal  (gold  and  silver  =  sun  and  moon). 

Ezra  vi.  11  :  Empalement.  Assyrian  reliefs  represent  this 
form  of  execution. 

^  See  remarks  inß.A.,  iii.  pp.  91  f.,  and  comp.  Winckler,  F.,  i.  292. 
-  See  Izdubaf-Nimrod,  pp.  68  H.  :  Ishtar  and  Semiramis. 


250      GLOSSES   UPON  THE    BOOKS   OF   KINGS,   ETC. 


The  victim  is  either  pierced  through  the  breast  by  the  point 
of  the  erected  beam  (Ina  zakipi  azkiip  or  ashkun),  so  that  the 
body  falls  over  it,  or  (for  example,  upon  the  bronze  gates  of 
Balawat)  the  body  is  pierced  upwards  through  the  middle  by 
the  point. 

Neh.  i.  1  :  The  months  Chislev  and  Nisan.  The  modern 
Babylonian  names  of  the  months  were  in  use  after  the  Exile, 
and  together  with  this  the  Babylonian  Calendar,  with  the 
Spring  equinox  as  New  Year.  Cuius  regio,  eius  religio.  The 
calendar  was  a  religious  act  of  the  state,  see  pp.  39,  i.  ff. 

The  attempts  at  a  reform  under  Sheshbazar  and  in  the  time 
of  the  Maccabees  prove  independence,  see  p.  46,  i. 

The  post-exilic  =  New  Babylonian  names  of  the  months  are  :  ^ 


Jewish 

= 

Babylonian 

Nisan 

Nisannu 

ijjar 

airu 

sivan 

sivannu 

tammuz 

düzu 

ab 

abu 

elul 

ululu  (eluki)2 

tishri 

tashritu 

marheshvan  {i.e. 

,  8th  month) 

arah-samiia 

kislev 

kislivu 

tebet 

tebitu 

shebat 

shabatu 

adar 

addaru 

he  pre-exilic  names 

in  the 

Old  Testament  are : 

Hebrew 

= 

Phcenician  ^ 

abib  (  =  nisan) 

Exod.  xiii.  4  and  elsewh* 

^re 

ziv  (  =  ijjar) 

nn 

1  Kings  vi.  1,  37 

(onl3 

i  attested  in  Punic) 

'etanim  (  =  tishri) 

DJDN 

1  Kings  viii.  2 

eis  86a 

bül  (  =  marheshvan) 

hl 

1  Kings  vi.  38 

eis 

iii.  1,  X.  1. 

'  Ezra  himself  says  that  the  Jews  took  their  present  names  of  the  months  from 
the  Babylonians  during  the  Captivity  ;  see  Ideler,  Hist.  Untersuchufigen,  151. 
Compare  now  upon  the  material  Ginzel,  Handbuch  der  mathernatischen  und 
technischen  Chronologie,  p.  113  ff. 

-  Written  thus  in  the  time  of  Hammurabi. 

*  See  Lidzbarski,  Handb.  der  Epigraphik,  412. 


ESTHER  251 

Neh.  ii.  8  :  Pardes-Paradeisos,  park,  comp.  Eccles.  ii,  5  ;  Song 
of  Solomon  iv.  13.  Here  it  is  the  royal  park  of  the  Persian 
king. 

The  Word  is  Indo-Germanic,  Zendic  pairideza ;  comp.  Lagarde, 
Arm.  Stnd.,  1878,  Z.D.M.G.,  xxxii.  76l,  xxxvi.  182.  It  is  attested 
in  Babylonian  in  Strassm.,  Contr.  Cyr.,  212  (iVIeissner,  Z.A.,  vi.  290, 
n.  3),  and  on  a  sniall  Babylonian  tablet  of  the  time  of  Phihp 
(317  B.c.),  where  a  part  of  East  Arabia  is  called  Pardesu  (Hoxnmel, 
G.G.G.,  116,  n.  3,  comp.  250).  The  thing  itself  is  old.  The 
Assyrian  kings  had  those  sort  of  park-Hke  places,  as  the  royal 
inscriptions  show  (compare  the  "hanging  gardens  "  of  Semiramis 
at  Ktesias). 

Neh.  ii.  10:  Sinballat,  that  is,  ''Sin  gives  hfe  "  ;  see  upon  Sin, 
pp.  108,  i.  f.  ;  Neh.  ix.  7,  see  p.  12. 

The  Book  of  Esther 

*  In  this  legendary  story  motifs  out  of  the  Babylonian  mythology 
of  Ishtar  and  Marduk  are  interwoven,  of  -which  the  names  Esther 
and  Mordecai  give  a  hint ;  Jensen  is  thiis  far  correct  in  Marti' s 
Handkovnnentar,  xvii.  1 73  ff".  It  is  not  correct  that  the  foundation 
of  the  Book  of  Esther  lies  in  the  episode  of  Humbaba  in  the  epic 
of  Gilgamesh  :  Haman  and  Vashti  enemies  of  Mordecai — like  the 
Elamites  who  are  represented  by  the  gods  yuman  and  Mashti, 
enemies  of  the  people  of  Marduk^  who  were  Babylonians.  Upon 
the  meaning  of  the  myth,  and  especially  of  the  figure  of  Haman, 
see  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  1  ff.  >1^ 

It  is  known  that  the  Book  of  Esther  gives  the  legend  of  the 
Jewish  festival  of  Purim.  A  part  of  this  festival,  which  is  called 
MapSo^aiKr^'  rjfj-^pa,  1  Macc.  xv.  06,  probably  dates  back  to  the 
Babylonian      New      Year     festival,      called     Zagmuk  =  resk     shatti 

^  See  Zimmern,  R'.A.  T,,  3rd  ed.,  514  fF. 


CHAPTER    XXVII 

glosses  tu  the  so-called  di d actio  books 

The  Book  of  Job 

The   Jews    knew    that    the    story   of  Job  which  underlies  the 
teaching  of  the  book  was  not  ineant  to  be  taken  as  history. 

"  Job  nexev  existed,  and  was  no  created  being,  but  is  a 
mashel  (poeni)'';  see  Baba  bathra,  f.  15«.  The  material  of  this 
poem  is  common  property  in  the  East.  It  has  migrated.  But 
this  is  only  in  regard  to  its  dramatic  envelopment.  The 
religious  atmosphere  with  its  theophany  is  specifically  Israelite. 
The  Speeches  of  Elihii  served  as  an  appendix.  Possibly  we  niay 
suggest  the  form  of  Oriental  poems,  where  the  poet  in  conclusion 
expresses  his  own  view  of  the  theme  discussed.  We  might  then 
assunie  that  the  author  speaks  in  the  person  of  Elihu. 

Upoii  Indian  ground  also  this  legendary  nuiterial  is  fouud.  The 
niissionary  Bouchet  {The  Religiou.s  Cerevionics  and  Cvsf.oms  of  (hc 
J'arious  Xalioii.i,  p.  28ö)  records  that  lie  heard  the  following  story 
froni  the   Brahuiins  :  ^ 

"  One  day  the  gods  assenibled  themselves  in  tlieir  sacred  abode. 
Indra,  «•od  of  the  air,  had  the  chief  seat  in  the  assembly.  Besides 
the  divinities  of  both  sexes,  the  most  celebrated  penitents  (saints) 
Avere  also  there,  above  all,  the  seven  Menüs  (patriarchs).  After 
some  conversation  the  question  is  laid  before  them  whether  il 
would  l)e  j)ossible  to  find  a  faultless  prince  aniongst  men.  Tliey 
were  nearly  all  of  tlie  opinion  that  there  was  none  without  great 
faults,  and  Siva  Rudra  (the  Indian  Satan)  was  leader  of  those  wlio 
expressed  this  opinion.  Vasista  alone  asserted  that  his  pupil 
Atshandira  was  faultless.  Upon  this  Hudra,  who  could  not  bear 
any  Opposition,  was  very  wrathfub  and  assured  the  gods  that  he 
would  soon  show  them  the  faults  of  this  prince  if  they  would 
deliver  him  over  into  his  hands.     Vasista  accepted  the  challenge, 

'   Upon  the  following.  sec  Nork,  Realwörlerlniclt ,  s.v.  Iliob. 


JOB  253 

and  it  was  agreed  that  the  one  whose  assertion  was  proved  false 
should  abdicate  to  the  other  all  the  honour  which  he  had  won  by 
a  long  course  of  penance.  Atshandira  now  became  the  victini  of 
this  strife.  Rudra  tried  hini  by  every  nieans,  brought  him  to  the 
most  abject  poverty,  had  his  only  son  executed,  and  took  away 
his  wife. 

"In  spite  of  these  misfortunes,  the  king  remained  so  steadfast  in 
all  virtiie,  that  the  gods  themselves,  who  had  allowed  these  trials 
to  come  lipon  him,  undoubtedly  would  have  failed  under  them. 
And  they  reAvai-ded  him  freely.  They  also  gave  him  back  his 
wife,  and  brought  his  son  to  life.  Thereupon,  according  to  the 
bavgain,  Rudra  abdicated  all  his  honours  to  Vasista,  and  Vasista 
bestowed  them  upon  Atshandira.  The  vanquished  Rudra  went 
away  wrathful  and  began  another  course  of  penance  in  order  to 
win  for  himself  if  possible  another  störe  of  honours." 

'f'  If  the  mythological  is  the  characteristically  Oriental,  and 
therefore  the  Biblical  form  of  story,  we  may  expect  above  all  to 
find  it  in  passages  like  the  poem  of  Job.  It  may  be  looked  for 
chiefiy  in  the  names  and  numbers.  We  look  for  it  in  the  name 
of  Job  (Ijjob,  Babylonian  ajjäbu,  the  enemy).  We  look  for  it 
further  in  the  seven  sons  and  three  daughters  before  the  trial, 
and  the  same  number  after  the  trial,  in  the  seven  days  and  seven 
nights  of  the  friends  (Job  ii.  13),  in  the  140  =  2  x  70  years  of  life 
after  the  trial.  The  names  of  the  daughters  are  characteristic  : 
Kerenhappuch,   Jemimah,  and   Keziah. 

The  LXX.  translates  the  first  name  Ke'pa?  'A/xaAöetas ;  they  found 
therefore  a  mythological  jjlay  in  the  name  :  Amalthea  with  the 
cornucopitei  (in  Hebrew  the  word  is  called  elsewhere  "hörn  of 
antimony");  Jemimah,  ''the  lengthener  of  days".?  Keziah,  "the 
shortener  of  the  thread  of  life".?  Thus,  therefore,  the  names 
would  contain  a  play  upon  the  Oriental  prototype  of  the  three 
Greek  Fates. 

When  the  Targum  names  their  mother  Dinah  (  =  Dike,  Nemesis  .?), 
perhaps  it  agrees  with  this.  It  must  likewise  have  been  recognised 
by  the  Rabbinical  Jews  that  Job's  friends  are  connected  with  the 
mythology  of  the  Underworld  ;  the  Midrash  upon  Eccles.  f.  \00d 
says  :  It  is  not  said  about  Job's  friends  that  such  an  one  came 
from  his  house  or  from  the  city,  but  from  his  place;  that  is,  re- 
ferring  to  Acts  i.  25,  "Judas  went  to  his  place,"  i.e.  hell.  This  last 
note  perhaps  Supports  the  assertion  of  Winckler  which  finds  a 
myth  of  Job  (Ajjub)  and  his  three,  originally  two,  friends  (with 
Job  counted  in,  it  made  three)  in  Nabigha  ii.  (see  M.V.A.G.,  1901, 
144'  ff.  ;  F.,  iii.  44).  We  may  assume,  then,  from  our  point  of  view, 
that  the  presentment  of  the  Book  of  Job  has  adorned  the  story 
of  the  hero  with  features  of  the  Year-god  sitting  in  misery  (in 
the   Underworld;  but  finally  set  free.^ 

^  Therefore  an  astral-mythological  allusion  ;  Amalthea  is  a  constellation. 


254     GLOSSES   TO   SO-CALLED   DIDACTIC   BOOKS 

Job  i.  1  :  There  icas  a  man  in  the  land  qf  U::.  The  land  of 
Uz,  which  has  been  sought  from  of  old  in  localities  far  removed 
from  Damascus,  cannot  yet  be  geographically  identified.  In  the 
mind  of  the  chronicler  the  events  of  the  story  took  place  in 
Arabia.  The  attack  by  Sabean  hordes  proves  this,  i.  15. 
Also  the  "  Chaldeans,"  i.  17,  may  be  nieant  in  their  original 
East  Arabian  dwelling-place.  The  nanie  Uz  probably  appears 
in  the  cuneiform  writings  in  the  Gentilicium  Uzzai.^ 

Job  i.  5  :  Job  had  them  purified  (his  children)  after  their 
feasting.  Delitzsch,  Hiob,  upon  this  passage  thinks  of  the 
purification  by  the  priest  "  by  a  mnllilu  or  eshippii^''  as  the 
Babylonians  would  say.  The  verb  ladäsh,  "  to  make  clean," 
is  in  Babylonian  also  a  religious  word. 

Job  i.  6 :  The  sons  of  God  came  to  present  theniselves 
before  Yahveh,  and  Satan  came  also  among  them.  The  sons  of 
God  are  =  gods,  comp.  Ps.  Ixxxii.  6,  as  sons  of  inen  =  aremen. 
The  form  of  expression  is  pure  Semitic.  "  Father  ^  denotes 
authority ;  "  son,''  Subordination.'-  A  divine  court  is  here 
described  as  in  xxxviii.  T.  Among  the  sons  Satan  appears  as 
an  "evil  god,"  like  Nergal,  the  god  of  hell,  at  the  divine  court 
in  the  Erishkigal  myth.'' 

This  is  referring  primarily  to  the  oppositions  in  universe  and 
cycle :  lordship  in  the  Overworld  and  in  the  Underworld,  light 
and  darkness.  But  the  duality  is  overcome  by  religion  here, 
and  the  Lord  of  the  Powers  of  Darkness  is  in  the  service  of 
God.  The  strife  is  taken  over  into  the  moral  realm.  Satan 
is  the  "adversary"  and  "  accuser,"  Job  i.  6  flP.  Comp.  Zech, 
iii.  1  f^  Therefore,  with  Zimmern,  K.A.T..,  3rd  ed.,  p.  461,  it 
must  be  pointed  out  that  in  the  Babylonian  conception  of  the 
forensic  relations  between  the  Divinity  and  man  there  appear 
certain  demonic  figures  who  play  the  part  of  "  accusers "  ■'  and 

1  See  F.  Delitzsch,  Z.K.F.,  ii.  87  ff. 

-  Compare  also  b'ne  /a(5i'=lions,  Job  iv.  11,  and  the  hciioth  jaanah=o%\x\c\v&%, 
Job  XXX.  29. 

^  See  upon  this  "  Hölle  und  Paradies,"  A.O.,  i.  3,  2nd  ed.,  and  see  below  upon 
Job  ii.  7. 

■*  Naturally  he  also  has  the  qualilies  of  the  evil  spirits.  According  to  Job  ii.  7  he 
can  strike  with  sickness,  like  the  Babylonian  galLA  and  other  companions  of  Nergal. 

''  Compare  the  proceedings  in  the  judgment  in  Dan.  iii.  8, 


JOB  255 

"  oppressors."  In  Zimmern 's  tables  of  ritual  ^  the  "  oppressor 
of  sinners ''  (shadiru  sha  hei  arni)  is  spoken  of;  amongst  the 
fourteen  helpers  of  the  Hell-god  Nergal  there  appcars  a  demon 
sharabdfi,  who  is  nanied  in  dosest  connection  with  akil  karse, 
"  slanderer,"  '^  IL  R.  32.  56,  and  the  Syrians  called  Satan 
N^lp  7Dn,  Matt.  iv.  But  it  is  not  a  case  of  borrowing  the 
image  of  the  figure  of  Satan,  but  of  a  common  conception. 

Marti,  Komm,  upon  Zech.,  iii.  1  f.,  says  :  "  Since  there  is  no  evidence 
of  the  eai-her  existence  of  such  a  figure  of  Satan  (I  also  take  the 
first  chapter  of  Job  to  be  later  than  Zech,  i.-viii.)  .  .  .  .  it  may  be 
assumed  that  Zechai-iah  himself  created  this  figure."  This  is  a 
characteristic  specimen  of  the  theory  of  hterarv  borrowing,  Avhich 
\ve  combat. 

Job  i.  6  ff.,  see  p.  187,  i.,  ii.  1. 

Job  i.  15  :  Delitzsch,  H'ioh,  upon  this  passage  refers  to  the 
letter  K  562,  translated  by  him  in  Wo  lag  das  Paradies^ 
pp.  302  f.,  which  communicates  the  news  of  a  predatory  on- 
slaught  of  the  North  Arabian  Mas'äer  upon  the  tribe  of 
Nabaiat :  "  One  of  them  escaped  and  came  hither  to  the  city 
of  the  king."" 

Job  ii.  4 :  And  Satan  answered  Yahveh,  and  said,  "  Body  for 
body."  The  proverb  corresponds  to  the  ius  talionis  as  \ve  found 
it  in  the  Bibhcal  Thora  and  in  the  laws  of  Hannnurabi,  see 
pp.  110  f. 

Job  ii.  7  :  Leprosy  here  is  caused  by  Satan,  as  in  Babylonia 
by  Nergah  In  the  myth  of  Erishkigal  Nergal  goes  with  seven 
helpers  and  their  seven  helpers  to  the  gate  of  the  Underworld  : 
lightning,  fever,  heat,  and  so  on  are  their  names.  Along  with 
them  appears  Namtar,  "  the  plague,""  as  special  messenger  of  the 
goddess  of  the  Underworld. 

Job  iii.  3 :  '^  Behold  (Sept.  ISov),  a  man!''''  Greeting  at  the 
birth  of  Job.  Leah  named  her  son  Reu-ben  (See,  a  son  !),  In 
the  Sept.  and  in  the  old  Onomasticon  it  is  Reu-bal  (See,  a  lord  !) 
The  greeting  is  the  same  at  the  rising  of  a  lucky  star. 

Job  iii.  8  {cursers  ofthe  day),  see  p.  194,  i. 

Job  iii.  13  :  "  For  now  I  slioidd  have  lien  down  and  been  quiet  ,• 
I  should  have  died,  and  had  resf''  (Wisdom  xxii.  11,  xxx.  17; 

1  Beiträge  zur  babyloti.  Religion,  I15,  19. 
-  See  Jensen  upon  K.B.,  vi.  77,  79. 


256     GLOSSES   TO    SO-CALLED    DIDACTIC   BOOKS 

comp.  xlvi.  19).  In  an  Assyrian  letter  a  man  laments  that  he 
has  loüt  the  favour  of  the  king,  and  mu.st  now  languish  in 
misery,  and  he  says :  "  I  bow  my  head  unto  the  death  ;  they 
who  are  dead  have  rest,"  IV.  R.-  46  (53)  No.  2,  16  ff.  In  both 
ue  find  the  same  pessimistic  resignation.  Comp,  also  Job  xvii.  16. 
Job  V.  1,  see  lipon  xxxiii.  23  f. 

Job  vii.  9  :  "  That  xchich  descendeth  to  the  Underxoorld  returneth 
not  again'''  (Wisdom  xxx.  11).  In  the  beginning  of  the  descent 
into  hell  of  Ishtar  the  Underworld  is  called  "  the  house,  into 
which  whoso  entereth  cometh  not  out  again,  the  path  which 
returneth  not  again. "' 

Job  vii.  12:  "  Sea  and  tannin  "  (the  earth  as  a  dragon,  see 
{).  149,  i.,  n.  7),  mythic  monster  of  poetry. 

Job  ix.  9  upon  xxxviii.  31  fF. :  The  "  Chamber.^  of  the  south  " 
means  some  great  constellation  of  the  southern  heavens,  or  it 
may  denote  the  division  belonging  to  Ea,  the  ecliptic.^ 

Job  X.  21  :  Befofr  I  go  hence  and  retiirn  no  more  into  the  land 
of  darkness  and  of  shadnic'''' \  comp.  Tobit  iv.  10:  '•'■  Mercfid- 
ness  delivereth  from  death^  and  snff'ereth  not  to  go  into  dark- 
ness.'''' The  descent  into  hell  of  Ishtar  says  of  the  Underworld  : 
"The  dark  house,  u'hose  inhabitants  have  no  light,  where  light 
sees  them  not,  sitting  in  darkness."  Comp,  also  Job  xvi.  22  and 
xvii.  16  (bars  of  the  Underworld)  and  xxxviii.  17  (gates). 

Job  xi.  8,  see  p.  ipi,  i.  ;  Job  xviii.  5,  see  p.  42,  i. 

Job  XV.  28 :  The  reference  is  to  the  custom  of  war  which 
declared  a  city  to  be  desert.  This  happened  to  Jerusalem 
under  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Job  xviii.  13  f. :  The  Lord  of  the  kingdom  of  Death  is  called 
'\ßrsthorn  of  death,  the  hing  of  terrors.''''  The  language  is 
mythological.     Nergal  has  similar  epithets. 

Job  xxiv.  18  f.,  according  to  Delitzsch,  B.B.,  i.,  4th  ed.,  pp.  S9  and 
70,  contains  the  antithesis  between  a  hot,  dry  desert  reserved  for 
sinners,  and  a  garden  with  fresh,  clean  water  reserved  for  the 
blessed,  and  "formsthe  welcome  hridge  between  the  New  Testament 
conception  of  the  scorchino-,  waterless,  painful  hell  and  the  garden 
whicli  the  Oriental  with  liis  limited  supply  of  water  is  unable  to 
conceive  without  an  abundaiit  flow  of  living  water."     With  Cornill 

'  Thus  Hommel,  Aufs.  iiJid  Abh.,  432. 


JOB  257 

we  must  contradict  this  explanation.  Delitzsch  is  most  in  error 
when  he  assumes,  loc.  cit.,  p.  41,  that  there  is  evideiice  that  the 
drinking  of  clear  water  in  Sheol  is  a  reward  for  the  '"'  wholly 
blessed."  Clear  water  was  wished  for  all  the  dead — the  drink  of 
fresh  water  is  the  ideal  of  every  Oriental.  The  inscription  on  the 
clay  cone  foiind  in  Babylon,  which  as  reward  for  the  reverent 
handling  of  the  coffin  promises  the  drink  of  clear  water  in  Hades, 
gives  no  evidence  of  any  differentiation  between  hell  and  Paradise. 
To  curse  the  dead  it  was  wished  that  his  ghost  might  be  shut  out 
from  water  j  to  bless  the  dead,  it  was  wished  that  he  might  drink 
clear  water  in  Hades.  Hence  the  libations  upon  the  graves,  and 
the  Springs  in  the  Babylonian  cities  of  the  dead.  In  the  second 
edition  of  "Hölle  und  Paradies"  [A.O.,  i.,  3rd  ed.)  this  is  clearly 
expressed  against  Delitzsch,  and  we  repeat  our  objection,  after 
Delitzsch,  in  Rückblick  und  Ausblick,  1904,  p.  4,  has  again  emphasised 
those  fatal  conclusions  as  specially  important. 

Job  xxiv.  21,  see  p.  20,  n.  5.  Job  xxvi.  12  f.,  see  p.  194,  i.  Job 
xxxiii.  6,  see  p.  182,  i. 

Job  xxxiii.  23  f, ;  comp.  v.  1,  the  interceding  angel.  We  find 
the  idea  of  a  heavenly  intercessor  in  the  myth  of  Adapa, 
where  Tammuz  and  Gishzida  intercede  for  Adapa  with  Anu, 
K.B.,  vi.  1,  pp.  97  ff.,  in  the  penitential  psalms,  and  often  in  the 
religious  presentments  on  the  seal  cylinders ;  comp.  fig.  35, 
p.  109,  i.,  and  Zimmern,  K.A.T..  3rd  ed.,  419  f. 

Job  xxxvii.  18,  see  p.  189,  i- 

Job  xxxvii.  22  :  "  Out  ofthe  north  coinetli  gold^  According  to 
the  Oriental  presentment,  gold  is  the  "  dirt ''  of  hell.^  If  the 
origin  of  gold  agrees  with  their  picture  of  the  world,"-  \\ e  uould 
expect  it  to  be  the  south.  But  in  another  respect  the  north, 
which,  according  to  Job  xxvi.  7,  is  above,  is  explicable.'^     The 

^  P.  234,  i.,  n.  2. 

-  Delitzsch,  //tod,  upon  37,  22  erroneously  identifies  the  place  of  the  gold  with 
the  mountain  of  God.  When  the  Aiallü,  II.  R.  51,  11,  is  called  shad  hin-äsi ,  the 
hell-like  interior  of  the  mountain  is  intended. 

^  The  Rabbis  imagine  that  the  earth  is  surrounded  by  heaven,  but  the  north  is 
open.  Comp.  Herrschensohn's  Hebrevv  writing,  Book  of  the  Seven  Wisdoms,  pp.  4 
and  12.  "  It  is  said  in  Baba  bathra  ii.  25^  :  The  heavens  Surround  the  earth  like 
Aksadra  (surrounded  on  three  sides,  not  the  north  side)  ;  this  is  explained  thus  : 
there  is  no  heaven  there  ;  that  is,  it  is  open  there,  there  is  a  gap  in  the  heavens." 
It  is  explained  in  other  passages  that  the  dwelling-place  of  evil  demons  is  in  the 
gap  ;  tempest,  ghosts,  shedim,  lightning,  and  demons  come  from  thence.  Compare 
with  this  also  Hommel  in  Aufs,  und  Abk.,  267,  the  demon  of  the  north  wind 
Mehü. 

vol..  11.  17 


258     GLOSSES   TO   SO-CALLED   DIDACTIC   BOOKS 

spirits  of  destruction  sent  by  Yahveh  come  from  the  north, 
Ezek.  ix.  2,  and  in  the  midst  of  them  is  the  recording 
angel  uho  writes  down  the  blessed.^  The  north  point  of  the 
ecliptic  is  the  critical  point,  the  death  point,  of  Tainnuiz. 
At  the  north  gate,  Ezek.  viii.  14,  the  women  sit  who 
weep  for  Tainmuz  snnk  into  hell.  At  the  north  gate  of 
the  Temple  the  Jeus  ])laced  the  "iniage  of  jealousv,"  Ezek. 
viii.  5  ff.2 

The  north  point  of  the  earthly,  as  of  the  heavenly  All  is, 
however,  at  the  sanie  time,  the  throne  of  God,  the  tin'one  of 
the  supreme  God  (see  p.  20,  i.) ;  it  is  called  Arallu,  also  Harsag- 
kurkura,  Shad  imitrite,  the  "  niountain  of  countries."  Isa.  xiv.  13 
shows  that  the  Israelites  knew  the  presentment ;  the  Babylonian 
ruler  of  the  woi'ld  speaks  there  of  the  Mouiit  of  assembly  ''  in 
the  utterniost  north.  Also  in  Ezek.  xxviii.  14  "  the  holy 
monntain  of  God,"  which  is  covered  with  "stones  of  fire,''"  and 
guarded  by  cherubiin,  recalls  the  throne  of  God  in  the  north. 
In  Ps.  xlviii.  Yahveh  appears  in  glowing  flames  upon  his  holy 
niountain,  the  niountain  of  the  north*  trembles  bcfore  hiin. 
Zion  was  for  the  Jews  the  carthlv  type  of  tlu's  throne  of  God, 
see  pp.  54,  i.,  n.  4  ;  195,  i.  ;  206,  i.  Isa.  xxix.  1  f.  contains  a  play 
of  words  which,  in  ineaning,  has  Arallu  as  throne  of  God  and  at 
the  same  time  place  of  hell :  "  O  Ariel,  Ariel,  niountain  where 
David  encamped  .'  Add  ye  year  to  year,  the  feasts  shall  coine 
round,  then  will  I  distress  Ariel ;  there  shall  be  mourning  and 
lamentation,  and  he  shall  be  a  true  Ariel.'' 

Yahveh  will  distress  Zion,  which  should  be  an  Ariel,  a 
niountain  of  God,  so  that  it  niay  be  "  a  true  Ariel '' — that  is  to 
say,  a  mountain  of  hell  füll  of  cries  of  lamentation."' 

Job  xxxviii.  4-7,  see  p.  1  89,  i. 

'  See  lipon  the  passage.  The  "  seething  caldron,"  Jev.  i.  13,  Coming  froni  the 
north  may  perhaps  also  be  mentioned  here. 

-  In  the  Kabbala  jis^  is  besides  sometinies  a  iiseudunym  for  ( "lod  ;  see  Knorr  r'. 
Rosenroth,  Kabbala  denudala,  i.  666. 

^  inm  "in.  Upon  the  corresponding  "il"-  ''■in.  see  [)p.  121  f.  Compare  also 
p.  266. 

■'  Ps.  xlviii.  3,  the  gloss  to  be  read  p£i;  in  ;  jiu-j  'r\2i\  see  Winckler,  Gesch. 
Isr. ,  ii.  1 29  f. 

"  See  Vorstellniigen  vom  Lehen  nach  dem  7'ode,  p.  123. 


MÜSIC    OF  THE    SPHERES  259 

Mustc  of  the  Sphcre-f 

Job  xxxviii.  7  :  comp.  pp.  181,  j. ;  187,  i.  Tlie  song  of  jojof 
the  Stars  and  planets  at  the  cveation  recalls  the  pa.ssage  of  the 
Babvlonian  nivth,  uhere  it  savs,  after  Marduk  has  S)iiquered 
the  darkness  :  "  ^Vhen  his  fathers  beheld  that,  thev  rejoiced,  and 
shouted  for  joy"— but  probably  it  also  ^■eil.s  the  thought  of  the 
"  harmony  of  the  spheres."  The  preseiitment  is  founded  upon 
the  fnndaiiieiital  law  of  pve-established  harnionv  ;  see  pp.  47,  i.  ff., 
55, 1.  ff.  Like  colours  and  nietals,  sounds  also  correspond  to  the 
planets.i  There  is  110  doubt  that  this  teaching  is  older  than 
the  Greek  philosophy,  and  that  it  caiiie  from^the  East  into 
Greece,  where  it  was  further  developed.  Pythagoras  seems  to 
have  been  the  intermediary  whose  borrowing  of  Oriental  material 
is  eniphatically  proved.  The  early  translators  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment weve  right  in  their  assumption  that  the  poets  of  the  Old 
Testament  also  recognised  this  Oriental  poetic  idea,  though  thev 
suspected  hints  of  it  in  the  wrong  passages.  Aqiiila  translates 
the  passage  in  Song  of  Solonion  vi.  10,  which  reallv  savs  :  "  clear 
as  the  sun,"  with  the  words.  "  sounding  like  the  sun."  The 
Vulgate  translates  Job  xxxviii.  37:  comrntum  caii  qiiis 
donnur  facict,  "  Who  will  .silence  the  nuisic  of  heaven  .^ " 
(The  passage  really  says :  ''Who  poureth  out  the  bottles  of 
heaven.!^")  Two  other  passages  actually  speak  of  the  niusic 
of  the  heavenly  bodies :  Ezek.  i.  24,  where  it  says  of  the 
Cherubim  (these  arc  the  planets  of  the  four  chief  station.s 
of  the  zodiac):  '•  I  heard  the  noise  of  their  wings  like  the 
noise  of  great  waters,  like  the  thunder  of  the  Almightv'";  and 
Ps.  xix.  1-5:  "The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God  ;  their 
voice  goeth  out  into  all  lands '-  and  their  words  to  the  end  of 
the  earth's  cycle." 

'  Tones  of  soiind  proceed  from  the  planets  in  their  joiimey  thiough  the  zodiac 
(comp.  pp.  16,  i.  f.).  The  harmonies  of  music  with  the  seven  notes  of  the  octave  are 
founded  upon  their  seven  notes.  Since  the  seventh  iiote  helongs  to  Nergal.  the 
devirs  planet  and  planet  of  misfortune,  the  seventh  was  forbidden  in  Church  music 
of  the  Christian  era  (and  in  the  iiiusüa  sacra  of  Scotland  to  the  present  day). 

2  It  should  be  revised  thus  ;  the  old  translations  have  it  (pe6yyos.  Gunkel, 
Ausgewählte  Psahnen:  "  Their  spit  goes  out  over  the  whole  earth  !"  One  can 
scarcely  believe  one's  eyes. 


260     GLOSSES   TO    SO-CALLED   DIDACTIC    BOOKS 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  opposed  by  leavned  theologians,  the  teaching 
of  the  music  of  the  spheres  died  out  in  art,  but  at  the  period  of  the 
Reformation  theologians  ^  and  astronomers  presented  it  anew,  whilst 
poetry  wilhngly  reverted  to  its  most  anoient  figure. 

Dante  gives  to  the  heavenly  bodies  sacred  guides,  who  rule  the 
celestial  cycles  and  whose  song  is  an  echo  of  the  song  of  the 
spheres.     Tliiis  Raphael  in  the  prologue  to  Faust  saj-s  : 

"  Die  sonne  tönt  nach  alter  Weise 
In  Brudersphären  W'ettgesang, 
Und  ihre  vorgeschriebene  Reise 
Vollendet  sie  mit  Donnergang." 

Job  xxxviii.  14  :  The  picture  of  life  coniing  forth  from  the 
darkness  of  earth  into  the  light  of  the  niorning  is  compared  with 
the  pictured  relief  produced  by  the  seal  cylinder  rolled  upon 
clay.  This  is  a  simile  which  a  knowledge  of  the  varied  Baby- 
lonian  seal  cvlinders  first  made  comprehensible  to  us. 

Job  xxxviii.  31  ff.  :  K'ima  can  hardly  be  the  Pleiades.  It 
niav  perhaps  be  the  star  Arcturus  in  the  Great  Bear  (as  bear 
leader?).-  Kesil  =  Orion,  see  p.  290,  i.  Sept.  'Qpelwu,  but  in  Job 
ix.  9,  "E(77repo9.  "■  Dost  tJiou  hose  the  hands  of  KesUV  Orion 
is  thought  of  as  the  giant  bound  in  the  heavens,  see  Gen.  x.  9. 

This  certainlv  refers  to  stars  or  constellations  connected 
with  well-knowii  mvths.  Mazzaroth  (see  2  Kings  xxi.  5 ; 
Babylonian  manzaltu^  "  place '')  are  the  stations  of  the  moon,  or 
the  "houses"  of  the  sun  in  the  zodiac.  ''Esh  (together  with 
theiv  sons),  Di?  read  ü)P3,  of  which  it  is  true  there  is  only 
Arabian  evidence.  Originally  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  were 
the  monsters  of  chaos ;  comp.  p.  146,  i.,  n.  1,  and  Gunkel, 
Schöpfung  nnd  Chaos,  140.  The  bier  .^  (it  is  known  that  the 
Great  Bear  was  also  represented  as  the  bier) :  "  Jnd  comfoHest 
thou  the  death-bier  togeihcr  icHh  her  cJi'ildren?''''  comp.  Stucken, 
Astralmythen,  34.  '•''  Knoxcest  thou  the  mishtär  of  the  heavens  f'' 
see  p.  49,  i.,  n.  1.     That  is  the  book  of  the  revelation  of  God  in 

'  Luther  says  upun  Matt.  xv.  34  :  Pythagoras  teils  of  a  wondious  lovely  harmony 
of  the  heavens,  just  as  though  he  had  read  Job.  And  upon  Gen.  ii.  21  :  Pytha- 
goras has  Said  that  the  sniooth  and  orderly  movement  of  the  spheres  under  the 
firmament  produces  a  beautifui  sweet  song  :  but  because  people  hear  it  daily,  they 
become  deaf  to  it  ;  just  as  people  who  live  near  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  pay  no 
attention  to  the  roar  and  the  crash  of  the  waters  because  they  hear  it  all  day. 

-  Also  Sirius  ("  Stern"  in  Geiger's  _/;>>/.  Ztschr.,  1865,  258  ff.). 


THE    PSAOIS 


261 


the  heavens.     V.  33''  is  the  parallel  pas.sage  :  "  Or  runst  thoupaint 
it  lipon  the  eaiih  ? "" 

Jul)  xxxviii.  33  (writiug  of  the  lieavens),  see  pp.  49,  i.  ff.  Job 
xxxix.  (),  see  p.  -t2.     Job  xl.  1-i  ff.,  see  p.  78. 

TJic  Psalms- 

There  exists  a  dose  relationship  between  the  poetic  form  of 
the  Biblical  aiid  the  Babvloniaii  soiig.s.  In  every  realm  of  science 
and  art  the  people  of  Israel  had  the  civili.sed  nations  of  Western 
Asia  for  their  teachers.  So  soon  as  they  developed  a  literature, 
it  followed  (luite  naturally  that  they  expre.s.sed  themselves  in  old- 
and  long-establi.shed  fornis.     On  the  other  band,  it  niay  be  par- 


Fu;.  i8i. — Double  Hute.  Fig.  1S2.— Cymbal.  ¥u:,    1S3.  — Dium. 

From  relief  in  a  palace  of  the  time  of  Assurbanipal. 

ticularlv  clearlj  Seen  in  the  religious  Ivrics  of  the  Psalms  that  the 
World  of  religious  thought  and  feeling  in  Israel  is  incomparably 
deeper  than  that  of  Babylon  and  Egvpt. 

lipon  the  instrumental  music  of  Western  Asia  conipare  the  intro- 
duction  by  Fr.  Jereniias  to  the  Psalms  in  Haupt's  Sacred  Books. 
Figs.  181  to  183  illiistrate  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  musical 
instruments. 

Ps.  ii.  7,  see  p.  36,  n.  3.  Ps.  xi.  6,  see  p.  VI.  Ps.  xix.  1  ff.,  see 
pp.  181,  i.  ;  189,  i.  ;  and  2.59.  Ps.  xxiii.  5,  see  p.  184,  i.,  n.  2.  Ps. 
xxiv.  2,  see  pp.  180,  i. ;  190,  i.      Ps.  xxxvi.  6  f.,  see  pp.  19O,  i.  ;  I9I,  i- 

Ps.  xliv.  23:  ^^  Aicakc,  ichy  sleeped  fhou,  Lordf^  Comp.  IV. 
R.  23,  col.  1,  line26fF.  :i 

The    Lord,   who   sleeps,  hoAv    long   will    he    sleep .''     The   great 

^  See  Hummel,  Au/s.  und  Abk.,  229. 


W2     GLOSSES   TO   SÜ-CALLEl)   DIDACTIC   BOOKS 

Mountain,  the  Father,  tlit-  üod  Mul-lilla  (Bei),  who  sleeps^  how 
long  will  he  sleep  r  The  Shei)hercl,  the  Decider  of  Fate,  who 
sieeps,  how  long  will  he  sleep  ? 

The  reversal  of  the  idea  is  not  conceivable  in  Babyloniu ; 
"Shephei'd  of  Lsmel,  who  neither  .sluniber.s  nur  sleeps,'' 
Ps.  cxxi.  4. 

Ps.  li.,  see  p.  227,  i.  Fs.  Ix.,  see  p.  60.  Ps.  Ixix.  l6,  see  p.  64. 
Ps.  Ixxii.  10,  see  p.  28.5,  i.  Ps.  Ixxiv.  13,  see  pp.  180,  i.  ;  194,  i. 
Ps.  Ixxvi.  3,  see  p.  27.  Ps.  Ixxxi.  4,  see  p.  106.  Ps.  Ixxxvii.  4, 
see  p.  195,  i.,  n.  5.  Ps.  Ixxxix.  11,  see  p.  195,  i.  Ps.  Ixxxix.  11  fF., 
see  p.  194,  i. 

Ps.  xci.  13:  '^  trcad  upon  the  (b-agun,''''  see  figs.  33  and  47; 
lurther,  pp.  149,  i.,  183  (1  Sani.  xvii.  51),  Test.  Lev.  18: 

Belial  shall  be  boinid  and  the  })riest  Messiah  shall  ,<»ive  his 
children  power  to  tread  upon  evil  spirits. 

Ps.  civ.,  see  p.  175,  n.  2  ;  177,  i.  ;  191,  i. ;  197,  i.  Ps.  civ.  4,  see 
p.  188,  1.,  n.  1.     Ps.  civ.  12,  see  p.  180,  i.,  n.  1.     Ps.  ex.,  see  p.  29. 

The  religious  presentnient  of  the  ascent  to  the  throne  of 
God  is  decisive  in  the  explanation  of  the  Hturgical  idea  skh' 
hamma'-aloth  (Ps.  cxx.-cxxxiv. ;  Luther,  Psahns  of  stages).  As 
the  Babvlonian  in  his  nianner  ascended  the  tower  of  stag-es  in 
Order  to  draw  near  the  divinity  (p.  57,  i.),  so  the  journey  of  the 
pilgrinis  to  Mount  Zion  was  a  journey  to  the  throne  of  God 
(Exod.  xxxi\ .  24  ;  compare  also  the  pilgriniage  to  Sinai,  p.  105). 
The  songs  of  travel  were  undoubtedly  sung  at  certain  stations 
in  the  "ascent  to  Jerusalem."" 

Ps.  cxxxvii.  7,  see  p.  6l.     Ps.  cxlviii.  S,  see  p.  5o,  n.  3. 

The  Provcrh-s  of  Soh)inon 

The  reference  which  has  lately  i)cc'n  suggested,  of  ])roverb 
poetry  to  Egyptian  influencc,  niistakes  the  unity  of  Western 
Asiatic  civilisation,  which  included  Egypt.  The  sanie  thing 
holds  good  here  as  was  reniarked  at  j).  261  upon  the  Psahns. 
Numb.  xxi.  27  ff.  quotes  ancient  Mosheliin.  During  the  period 
of  great  international  commerce  which  began  under  David  and 
Solomon,  the  literature  of  Israel  was  probably  specially  stiniu- 
lated.  Possibly  Arabia  made  its  influence  feit.  As  poet 
proverb-maker    Solomon   is    as    historic  as  is   the   tradition  of 


BOOK   OF   PROVERBS 


263 


David  as  psalniist.  The  naming  of  the  collectioii  of  pioverbs 
in  honour  of  Solomon  agrees  with  a  common  custom  of  the 
East.  The  collector  does  not  mean  that  the  proverbs  origin- 
ated  with  Solomon,  as  the  super- 
scriptions  to  indi^  idual  groups  show. 

Wisdom  is  personified  as  sitting 
in  Tehom,  as  in  the  Babvlonian 
myth  ;  see  pp.  48,  i. ;  105,  i.  ;  191,  i. 

IJpon  Prov.  ii.  16-19,  Peiser, 
O.L.Z.,  1900,  450  f.,  raises  the  con- 
jecture  that  the  description  of  the 
feminnie  seducer  is  founded  upon 
that  Babylonian  poem  in  which  the 
sinking  of  Lshtar  into  the  Under- 
world  is  described  : 

W'hü    there    forsakes  the  frieud    of 

her  youth  - 
[and  has  forsaken   die  covenant  of 

her  God], 
for  slie  sinks  into  death  [that  is,  her 

house], 
her    patlis    lead    to    the    Rephaim 

(Shades  of  Death), 
[to  the  house],  froni  -wlience  iione, 

who  enters,  returns  again, 
and  never  reaches  the  path  of  hfe. 

Prov.  iii.  18,  see  p.  207,  i. 

V.  3-5  recalls  the  answer  with  which  Gilgamesh  repels  the 
seductive  avts  of  Ishtar  on  Table  vi.  of  the  epic  of  Gilgamesh. 
Compare  also  Prov.  vii.  27,  "  her  [the  harlofs]  house  is  the  way  to 
the  Underworld,  ^\•hich  leadeth  down  to  the  Chambers  of  death." 
The  presentment  of  the  Underworld  in  the  Proverbs  corresponds 
tothe  Babylonian  world  of  death  ;  comp.  ix.  18  ("  he  knoweth 
not  that  the  Rephaim  are  there,  and  her  guests  in  the  depths  of 
Sheol '") ;  xxi.  6 :  "he  that  wandereth  from  the  path  of  wisdom 
shall  remain  in  the  realms  of  the  Rephaim." 

'  Ps.  xii.  I,  eight  strings  ;  xcii.  4,  ten  strings  ;  there  is  evidence  of  a  harp  with 
seven  strings,  for  example,  in  Erachin  i-^\  The  earlier  assumption,  that  the 
eleven-stringed  harp  is  of  Greek  origin,  is  overthrown  by  themonument  of  Telloh. 

-  Tamniuz  is  caüed  hainer  zihnitisha,  husband  of  the  youth  of  Ishtar. 


Fig.  1S4. — Ancient- Babylonian 
fragment  from  Telloh.  Eleven- 
stringed  harp.^ 


264     GLOSSES   TO   SO-CALLED   DIDACTIC   BOOKS 

Prov.  viii.  22-31,  see  p.  188,  i.  Frov.  ix.  1,  see  p.  200,  i.  Prov. 
xi.  30,  see  p.  208,  i.  Prov.  xiii.  12,  see  p.  208,  i.  Prov.  xxx.  7  ff. 
(proverbs  in  the  form  of  riddles),  comp.  pp.  1 89  f- 


The  Song  of  Songs  {Cunücles) 

In  the  form  before  us  the  Song  of  Songs  is,  as  the  superscription 
shoAvs  {shir  hashshtrini),  meant  to  be  a  uniform  whole  without 
regard  to  Hterary  origin.  Its  meaning  as  an  allegory  of  the  Messiah 
naturally  cannot  be  justified  (in  the  Christian  Church  since  Origen, 
and  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  book  Avas  kernel  and  star  of  the  mystics), 
though  it  is  comprehensible  when  it  is  pointed  out  that  the  SjTia- 
gogue  recognised  the  motifs  of  the  expectation  of  the  Deliverer  in 
the  marriage  song  ^  (in  the  same  Avay  as  in  the  marriage  song  in 
Psahn  xlv.)  and  so  looked  upon  the  poem  as  an  expression  of  the 
hope  of  the  Messiah.  There  appear  to  have  been  two  divisions  in 
the  Jewish  conception  :  the  one  looked  upon  the  song  as  a  worldly 
poem  (n1'?t^'0),  the  other  as  a  sacred  book  (D''tJ'1p  D'Tip).  Consult 
the  valuable  introduction  to  DeUtzsch's  interpretation  of  the  Song 
of  Songs. 

Cant.  i.  5  :  Tents  of  Kedar  (see  p.  51)  and  curtains  of  the 
Salamians  (not  Solomon),  the  sister-tribe  to  the  Nabataeans  of 
the  Nabataean  inscriptions  (Euting,  Nah.  Inschrift.^  2)  ;  see  Winckler, 
F.,  ii.  545  ff. 

Cant.  vi.  4,  10  :  Instead  of  mSlT^  should  perhaps  be  read 
Nergalöt  together  with  morning ;  as  sun  and  moon,  it  would 
then  denote  the  "  twins.'"  The  epithet  "  terrible ""  agrees  with 
the  connection  with  Ninib  and  Nergal.^ 

Cant.  vi.  9)  see  p.  259- 

Ecclesiastes 

represents  in  its  fundamental  constituent  parts  a  pessimistic 
document  which  is  in  Opposition  to  the  views  of  the  Yahveh 
religion  and  which  recalls  the  characteristically  pessimistic  tone 
of  the  Babylonian  poets  mentioned  pp.  227,  i.  f. 

The  document  in  our  canon  is  a  polemic  revision  in  the  spirit 
of    the    prophetic    religion.^      A    fragment    froni    an    epic    of 

^  Erbt's  assertions  in  Die  Hebräer,  pp.  196  ff.,  are  very  noteworthy  in  this 
direction. 

-  See  Winckler,  F,,  i.  293  ;  Jensen,  Kosmos,  64  ;  and  comp.  p.  114,  i. 
^  See  Paul  Haupt,  Koheleth  oder  Weltschmerz  in  der  Bibel,  Leipzig,  1905. 


ECCLESIASTES  265 

Gilgamesh    forms    an    interesting   parallel    to    the    Epicurean 
counsels :  ^ 

Gilgamesh,  ■\vhy  dost  thou  wander  around  ? 

Life^  which  thou  seekest,  thou  canst  not  find. 

When  the  Gods  created  man 

they  laid  upon  him  the  doom  of  death, 

and  i-etained  life  in  their  hands. 

Thou,  Gilgamesh,  satisfy  thy  büd\', 

rejoice  day  and  night, 

make  a  festival  each  day  ; 

rejoice  and  put  off  care  day  and  night, 

let  thy  garments  be  clean, 

thy  head  be  clean,  and  wash  thyself  with  water. 

Behold  the  little  ones  which  thou  holdest  in  thy  hand, 

let  thy  wife  rejoice  u])on  thy  bosom. 

^    V.A.Th.,  4105,  discussed  by  Meissner,  M.  l'.A.G.,  1902,  i  ff. 


CHAFrER    XXVIII 


l.LOSSE.'i    UX    THE    rKÜl'HET> 

IsA.  i.  9,  See  p.  I . 

Isa.  i.  11, 16  f . ;  comp.  P.s.  li.  19.  The  passage  niay  illu.strate 
the  relationship  of  the  Israelite  and  Babylonian  religion.  In 
the  one  case  a  spiritualised,  in  the  other  a  naturalistic,  religion. 

•'Tu  what  piirpuse  is  tlie  multi- 
tude  of  your  sacvifices  unto 
lue  ?  saith  Yaliveh.     I  am  füll 


•'•■(O  Ishtar)  what  shall  we  i>ive 
thee .''  Fat  uxen,  })Uun|i 
sheep?"  "I  will  not  eat  fat 
oxen,  nor  plump  siieej) ;  give 
unto  me  the  statel3a])pearance 
of  tlie  women,  the  beauty  of 
the  men." 

Craig,  Rcl.  Texis,  ii.  U); 
see  Züiimeru^  K.A.T.,  ord  ed., 
595,  n.  1. 


of  the  burut-offerings  of  rams 
and  of  the  fat  of  fed  calves 
....  wash  you,  make  you 
clean  ;  ])ut  away  the  evil  of 
your  doiugs  from  before  mine 
eyes  I  Cease  to  do  evil :  learn 
to  do  well." 

"The  sacrifice  of  God  is  a 
broken  spirit,  a  broken  and 
subdued  heart,  thou,  O  God, 
Avilt  not  despise." 

Isa.  i.  18,  see  p.  .-31,  n.  3. 

Isa.  ii.  2 :  Behind  this  picture  of  the  future  is  veiled  the 
presentment  of  the  niythical  "  inountain  of  assembly ""  as  in 
I.sa.  xiv.  13,  Iiar-iiio^ed  (see  p.  2-58). 

In  the  New  Testament  it  appears  in  Rev.  xxi.  10.^  Tlie 
antithesis  is  the  Mount  of  Assembly  of  the  powers  of  the 
Underworld,  which  we  believe  we  find  again  in  Rev.  xvi.  16 
(Har- Magedon,  a  corruption  from  har-mo''ed). 

Isa.  vi.  1  ff'.  :  Isaiah  sees  in  vision  the  heavenly  temple.  The 
description  of  the  seraphim  corresponds  to  the  genii  shown  in 
Babylonian  sculpture,  see  figs.  Q5  ff.,  122,  185  ;  comp.  p.  236,  i. 

The  name  is  scarcely  to  be  compared  with  tlic  nanu-  Sarrab(}))u, 
which  is  borne  by  Nergal   "in  the  Westland,"  aecording  to  II.  R. 


Also  Matt,  iv.,  aiid  with  this  B.N.T.,  95. 

2ö6 


ISAIAH 


267 


54j  76,c,d  (see  Ziinmeni,  K.A,T.,  3vd  ed,,  415).  Like'^cherubim 
(see  p.  236,  i.),  it  is  a  common  iiame  for  the  angels|^who-'are»the 
intermedia ries  between  the  hea\'enly  and  the  earthly  -worlds. 

The    song    o  f  

praise. 

Hol}-,     hol}-      i.s 

Yahveh  Sabaoth, 
all  lands  are  füll  of 

his  gloi'v  (kaböd), 

agrees  with  the 
fundamental  idea  of 
the  Mosaie  religion ; 
see  p.  107.  In  Isa. 
viii.  11-13  theprin- 
ciple  by  which 
Isaiah'.s  .soul  was 
moved  at  critical 
nionients  is  re- 
peated,  and  xxx. 
11  shows  that  this 
moving  motive  was 
at  variance  with  a 
people  sunk  in 
heathenisni.  Here 
we  hnd  the  char- 
acteristic  of  the 
Yahveh  vehgion  in 
Opposition  to  that 
paganism     which 

shows  itself  at  all  periods  in  the  populär  religion  (p.  16)  of  Israel. 
Isa.  vii.  14  ff. :  A   virgin  shaU  bcar  a  son,  xchkli  shc  shall  call 
"  God  zcith  HS.""     He  is  the  future  Deliverer,  who  (at  ix.  5)  has 
appeared  and  there  bears  the  m'ts'ra  upon  his  Shoulder.^ 

^  What  is  this?  Certainly  not  piimarily  an  abstract  thing  ("dominion," 
"  government"),  as  in  v.  6.  Is  it  the  coronation  mantle,  as  in  Rev.  xix.  i6 
(lipon  the  garment  as  abstract  of  goveinnient  of  the  vvorld,  see  p.  190)  ?  Compaie 
theinterestinginvestituieof  EHakimasdeliveier-king,  xxii.  21  ff.  ;  he  bears  the  key 
of  David  upon  his  Shoulder,  xxii.  22  recalls  the  appearance  and  disappearance  at 
the  call  of  Marduk,  p.   177,  i. 


Fig.  1S5.— Genius  on  a  relief  of  the  King  Assur- 
nazirpal,  who  sits  drinking  in  his  palace  (Ninirud). 


268  GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 

Isaiah  stood  before  the  king  in  great  excitement  to  warn  hini 
against  an  unholy  alliance  and  to  awaken  his  trust  in  the  help 
of  Yahveh.  His  words  are  bioken  and  puzzling.  They  pro- 
claim  a  golden  age,  and  they  treat  of  the  coniing  of  the 
Dehverer,  like  the  picture  drawn  of  the  end  of  time  in  Rev.  xii. 
The  virgin  is,  in  the  sense  which  rules  the  entire  Oriental 
World,  and  in  the  Israelite  prophetically  deepened  meaning  of 
the  expectation  of  the  Deliverer,  the  heavenly  virgin. '^  Whethei' 
the  prophet  was  thinking  of  an  event  near  at  hand.  or  to  occur  in 
far-offages,  is  immaterial.  The  prophetic  pictures  lack  perspec- 
tive. If  he  was  thinking  of  the  daughter  of  a  king,  she  wouldbe 
to  him  the  representative  of  the  heavenly  virgin.  We  niay  think 
also  of  the  '"•  daughter  of  Zion ''  in  Micah,  who  waited  for  the 
birth  of  the  Deliverer  King  froni  Bethlehem  (see  Micah  iv.  8). 

Milk  and  honeij  -shall  he  cat.  This  also  is  an  established 
motif  of  the  dawning  tinie  of  blessing,-  as  in  Micah  iv.  4: 
"  Every  man  shall  sit  under  his  own  vine  and  fig-tree.""  And 
then  this  golden  age  should  begin  when  the  awaited  one  should 
learn  to  refuse  the  evil  and  to  choose  the  good.  This  does  not 
mean  "when  he  is  three  or  four  years  old,"'^  bat  when  he  is 
capable  of  bearing  arms,  when  he  knows  what  there  is  to  strive 
for.^     Then  he  shall  appear,  and  the  golden  age  shall  dawn.^ 

'  Comp.  pp.  119,  i-  f-  B.A^.T.,  35  ff.  The  extra-Biblical  world  held  to  the 
horoscope  of  the  winter  solstice  ;  Virgo  rises  in  the  east  with  the  child  in  her  arms, 
persecuted  by  the -Dragon.  The  Biblical  conception  awaits  the  wonderful  one 
sent  from  God,  the  fxiya  rh  ttjj  ivcrfßiias  jj-varifpiov. 

■  See  B.N.T.,  p.  47,  n.  i. 

•'  Thus  in  the  cominentaries,  for  exauiple,  Duhm,  upon  the  passage  :  this  is 
judged  according  to  modern  education.  Isa.  viii.  4  teils  of  such  an  age  of  childhood 
(before  the  child  can  say  "  father  "  or  "  mother  ").  Duhm  otherwise  has  a  correct 
perceplion  :  "Theauthor  perhaps  assumes  that  the  boy  was  of  special  eschato- 
logical  developnient,  possibly  the  Messiah,  in  whose  youth  he  believes  himself  to 
have  discovered,  by  exegesis,  an  interesling  individuality."  It  is  not  a  question  of 
exegesis,  bat  of  the  l^nowledge  of  the  universally  pievaient  motifs  of  the  expected 
Deliverer. 

■*  Deut.  i.  39,  the  expression  is  used  in  the  same  sense. 

•'  Compare  the  greeting  of  the  wonderful  boy,  who  brings  the  Gulden  Age,  and 
the  new  cycle  in  the  celebrated  fourth  Eclogue  of  Virgil.  When  he  has  ripened 
to  manhood  "a  great  Achilles  shall  again  be  sent  against  Troy."  The  motifs  of 
the  springtime  of  the  universe  are  here  also  the  same  as  in  the  Babylonian  texts 
(comp.  B.N.T.,  31  f.)  and  in  the  prophetic  utterances  of  the  Bible.  As  in 
Isa.  xi.  6  ff.,  peace  in  the  animal  world  and  wonderful  fruitfulness  is  promised  in 
Virgil  also. 


ISAIAH  269 

Isa.  viii.  1,  see  p.  109.  Isa.  viii.  7,  see  p.  218,  i.  Isa.  ix.  11,  see 
p.  205,  i.,  n.  S.  Isa.  x.  9,  see  p.  295,  i.  Isa.  xi.  6-8,  see  p.  2S2,  i., 
n.  5. 

Isa.  X.  4.  VVe  hold,  with  Wiiickler,  O.L.Z.,  1902,  pr.  385,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  find  Beiiis  and   Osirix  liere. 

Isa.  X.  9  :  Kalno  ^  is  like  Kalne  (Arnos  vi.  2)  (a  Syrian  citv 
according  to  the  connection),  the  North  Syrian  KuUani  of  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  that  is,  probably  the  chief  city  of  the 
land  of  Ya'udi.-  In  the  year  738  Tiglath-Pileser  III.  eonquered 
the  city. 

Isa.  xi.  12  :  We  know  nothing  definite  about  a  carrying  away 
of  the  Israehtes  to  Elam,  Shinar,  and  Hamath.  Possibly  those 
carried  away  under  Tiglath-Pileser-Pul  niay  have  gono  there. 
Schrader,  K.A.T.,  2nd  ed.,  upon  the  passage,  points  out  that, 
according  to  Khors.,  138  f.,  Sargon  carried  away  Hittites  froni 
Elamite  territories  and  inhabitants  of  the  Westland  to  Shinar- 
Babylonia;  Khors.,  49-56,  records  a  colony  of  Arinenians  in 
Hamath. 

Isa.  xiii.  7,  see  p.  278,  i. 

Isa.  xiii.  10  fF,  :  Darkening  of  the  constellations  as  sign  of  the 
time  of  the  curse,  as  in  the  pictures  by  Joel  and  Ezek.  xxxii.  7  fF. 
Babylonian  texts  give  the  same  motif ;  it  is  thus  in  the  Reisner 
text,  hynni  131,  where  the  time  of  the  curse  is  described  in 
which,  in  the  world  of  beasts  and  of  men,  relations  destrov 
each  other : 

The  moon  does  not  rise  shining  ovev  the  land  ; 
Sun  and  moon  rise  not  shining  over  the  land."* 

Isa.  xiii.  21  :  Satyrs  in  the  wilderness.  A  play  of  words  upon 
"l^y2>* ;  the  desert  is  the  dwelling-place  of  the  demons,  see  pp. 
117  and  141.  Comp.  B.N.T.,  upon  Matt,  iv.,  pp.  94  f.;  Matt.  xii. 
43  (ib.  99  f.) ;   Rev.  xvii.  2  f. 

Isa.  xiv.  4  ff.  :  The  relationship  of  the  Biblical  pictures  of  the 
Underworld  in  Isa.  xiv.  and  Ezek.  xxxii.,  which  was  asserted  by  us 
in  spite  of  general  contradiction  in  1886,  in  Baby  Ionisch- assyrisclie 
l'orstelliingeH  vom  Lehen    nach  dem   Tode,  unter   Bej-iic/csichtigung  der 

'  To  be  read  Kalni,  com]3.  p.  295,  i.  Upon  the  Babylonian  Calneh,  Gen.  x.  lü, 
see  equally  p.  295,  i. 

-  Yaudi  on  the  inscriptions  of  Zenjirli,  see  p.  215.  n.  3. 

^  Placed  in  this  connection  by  Zimmern,  A'.A.  T.,  3vd  ed.,  393.  Upon  the  time 
of  the  curse,  see  also  B.A.  T.,  97  f.,  and  upon  the  eclipse  of  the  sun,  103. 


270  GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 

alttestameuilichen  Parallelen  dargesfellt,  is  now  genevally  acknowledged. 
Schwall}",  Avho  in  liis  J'orstcllangen  vom  Lehen  nach  dem  Tode  ignored 
our  Avriting  and  only  acknowledgfd  internal  Jewish  development, 
says  later,  O.L.Z.,  1900,  S]).  17:  "I  now  ascribe  miich  greater 
influenae  to  foreign  causes.  .  .  .  Babvlonian  features  were  inter- 
mixed  with  the  Biblical  presentment  of  Sheol."  Compare  now  our 
•'•'Hölle  und  Paradies,  bei  den  Babvloniern,"  A.O..  i.  3,  2nd  ed. 

Isa.  xiv.  4  ff".  :  This  song  is  in  reference  to  a  certain  event 
(lecisive  to  the  fate  of  Judab.  The  death  of  Sargon,  conqueror 
of  Samaria,  who  had  deceived  the  hopes  of  Judah,  comes  into 
consideration  in  the  first  instance.^  Budde  thinks  of  the  death 
of  Sennacherib.  2  Kings  xix.  21-28,  where  the  speedy  fall  of 
Sennacherib  is  foretold,  certainly  recalls  the  song  in  many 
features.  The  king,  as  Helal  ben  Shaliar,  is  like  the  gleaming 
movning  star,  which  as  evening  star  (Lucifer)  is  sunk  into  the 
Underwoi-ld.  The  nivth  of  the  descent  into  hell  bears  here  the 
motif  of  Venus  as  evening  star,  instead  of  sun  or  nioon  motif, 
as  has  been  reniarked  p.  121,  i.  Upon  the  coniparison  of  the 
king  to  the  star,  see  }).  181,  i.  Certainly  the  crescent  nioon  is 
scarcelv  meant  hei^e  (thus  ^Vinc•kler,  F.,  ii.  388;  Zimmern, 
A'.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  56o);  the  mvth  would  othcrwise  also  be  the  same 
in  that  case.  The  atmosphere  of  the  song  recalls  the  myth  of 
Etana.-     See  Deut.  xxx.  12,  xxxii.  11,  and  comp.  Exod.  xix.  4. 

Isa.  xiv.  l.'i(Mount  of  .Assembly),  see  ])]).  25S,  266.  Isa.  xiv.  '2.'!, 
see  p.  29  J-,  i.,  n.  4. 

Isa.  xiv.  29  ff.  :  Rcjo'icc  not,  PhUist'ta,  hccause  the  rnd  that 
ftmotc  thee  is  hrohen  (death  of  Shalmaneser) :  for  out  of  the 
root  -s-hall  go  forth  a  vi  per,  and  h'is  fruit  shall  he  a  xänged 
fterpent.     Sargon  is  comjiared  to  a  mvthical  dragon.-^ 

Isa.  xix.  18,  see  p.  SM,  i.      Isa.  xxiii.  1,  12,  see  p.  28.5,  i. 

Lsa.  XX.  1  :  The  single  passage  where  Sargon,  the  conqueror 
of  Samaria  (722-705,  .see  fig.  172),  is  )nentioned.  He  is  called 
Sharukin  arku,  "the  otho',''"'  to  distinguish  him  from  Sargon  I., 
the  founder  of  Babylon  (see  p.   '317,  i.).      When  he    boasts  of 

'   Or  Sennacheril)?     See  ]).  222.     Upon  the  followiiig,  Z. .-/.  IT.,  ii.   I2  ff. 

-  Jensen,  A'.ß.,  vi.  loi  fl'. 

'  See  Winckler,  O.L.Z.,  1902,  3S5  f.  =Kyit.  Sehr.,  iii.  9. 


ISAIAH  271 

his  three  hundred  and  fifty  royal  forefathers  (Cyl.  I.,  45, 
K.B.^  ii.  47),  he  represents  himself  as  citiwn  of  a  new  cycle, 
see  p.  77,  i.^ 

Isa.  xxii.  5-7  :  The  oracle  against  Hizavoii  could  not  })()ssiblv 
be  interpreted  rightly  formerly,  because  the  names  of  the  nations 
weie  not  known.  It  says  :  "  Yahveh,  the  I.ord  of  Hosts,  lirings 
in  warlike  excitement  [the  play  of  word  is  only  approximately 
translatable]  into  the  valley  Flizayon  Kar  and  Suti  -  froni  the 
niountains,  and  Elam  bare  the  c^uiver  and  Aram  mounted  the 
horses — and  Kir  bare  the  shield,  and  all  the  streets  shall  be  füll 
of  chariots  of  war  and  ridei's,  and  Sot  (the  Suti)  possess  the 
gate."  Kir^  is  the  land  of  Kares,  which  Arrian  names  together 
with  v*^ittakeno  (=Suti,  identical  with  Yamutbal).  Both  dis- 
tricts  lie  in  the  piain  of  Yatburi,  which  is  between  Tigris  and 
the  niountains,  and  borders  on  to  Elam.  The  Arama^ans  appear, 
Ezek.  xxiii.  23,  in  the  sanie  neighljourhood  uuder  the  Assvrian 
designation  Pek(Kl,  that  is,  Pakudu. 

Isa.  xxii.  21  ff.,  see  p.  267. 

Isa.  xxiv.  21  ff.  :  Judgmentand  tinie  of  blessing  (compare  upon 
this  passage  p.  195,  i.).  Yahveh  subdues  the  heathen  kings,  and 
the  army,  "  the  high  ones  "  {merom),  are  the  stars,  amongst  whom, 
according  to  v.  23,  moon  and  sun  belong.  He  therefore  con- 
quers  the  powers  under  whose  dominion  the  world  (the  East) 
has  stood  tili  then — the  heathen  kings  and  the  world  of  astral 
gods.  The  end  is  to  be  that  Yahveh  overthrows  their  dominion, 
imprisons  them  (!),  and  is  to  reign  from  Zion,  central  point  of 
the  universe."^  Yahveh  is  here  presented  exactly  like  Mardnk. 
As  Mardnk  conquers  Tiamat  and  the  gods  of  a  hostile  world, 
so  Yahveh  conquers  the  powers  of  the  existent  system.  The 
strife  was  thought  of  in  the  same  form. 


^  He  also  does  nol  name  his  father.  Motif  of  unknown  ancestry?  Comp. 
pp.  91  ff.     Then  possibly  he  would  be  no  usurper. 

-  n":;'  should  be  read  for  ]}'v  ;  see  already  Delitzsch,  Paradies,  24. 

^  Erroneous  reading  for  Kor,  see  upon  Fzek.  xxiii.  23,  not  =  Kutü,  as  Delitzsch, 
in  Paradies,  p.  240,  thinks  ;  see  upon  Arnos  ix.  7,  and  article  on  Kir  in  R.P.  Th., 
3rd  ed. 

"*  V.  23^'  is  an  added  quotation  from  a  poem  :  the  foregoing  uses  ancient  words 
and  ideas. 


272 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


The  passage,  then,  is  specially  important  for  the  comprehension 
of  the  idea  of  Yahveh  Sabaoth.  "The  hosts  of  tlie  high  ones/' 
L:'\-\Dr\  X3V,  V.  21,  are  the  heathen  astral  gods.  Yahveh  takes  from 
them  tlieir  dominion,  and  becomes  in  bis  Avay  Yahveli  Sabaoth, 
"Yahveh  of  the  (star)  hosts"  (comp.  Ps.  cxlviii.  2,  where  the  army 
of  the  mermn  has  become  Yahveh's  army,  bis  angel  world).  Poetr}- 
regarded  the  stars  as  heavenly  warriors,  see  p.  1 64. 

Isa.  xxvii.  1  (the  sickle  sword  of  Yaliveh),  see  p.  110,  i.,  n.  3; 
195,  i.  Isa.  XXX.  3,  see  p.  304,  i.,  n.  1.  Isa.  xxx.  7,  see  p.  ip.3,  i., 
n.  5.      Isa.  xxx.  26,  see  p.  18       Isa.  xxx.  33,  see  j).  349,  n.  2. 


Isa. 


14 


Lilith  is  identical  with  the  Babylonian 
demoness  Lilitu  (masculine  Lilu,  together 
with  Ardat  lili,  "Maid  of  the  LihV). 
Formerly  the  Biblical  Lilith,  who  i.s  also 
often  in  evidence  in  Hebrew  and  Aramaic 
magic  spells,  was  explained  mostly  as  a 
night  monster  from  ^''S,  night.  But  since 
the  Assyrian  lilätu  signifies  evening  (in 
Hebrew  h'h,  TVrh  is  night),  only  Hebrew 
populär  etymology  can  make  it  "  night- 
monster.""  The  Rabbinic  writings  look  upon 
Lilith  decidedly  as  night-monster,  who, 
especially  upon  Friday  nights  and  the 
night  of  the  new  moon,  is  dangerous  to 
children  and  to  tho.se  with  child.^  Also 
the  hymn  V.  R.  50  f.,  which  describes  the 
works  of  the  rising  sun,  in  saying  that  the 
sun  disperses  the  Ardat  lili,  argues  for  the 
night-monster.  It  is  said  once  of  the 
Maid  of  Lilu  that  she  "  whisks  in  through  a  window  upon  a 
man."     Perhaps  we  may  think  of  winged  demons,- 

The  "  two  women,"  who,  according  to  the  Babylonian,  bear  the 
rish'ah  between  heaven  and  earth,  each  with  two  storks'  wings  in 
whicli  is  the  wind,  also  belong  here,  Zech.  v.  9  f.  In  Babylonian 
the  lilUu,  as  winged  beings,  take  their  nanie  from  lil,  "  wind," 
explained  in  Assyrian  by  shdru,  zakikii. 

•  The  devils  of  prostitution  live  in  her  hair,  therefoie  Mephislopheles  in 
Faust  wams  ayainst  the  hair  of  Lilith.     Comp.  Erubin  100"^ ;  Nidda  24^ 

•  üf  the  seven  Babylonian  demons  one  is  always  called  ilit,  that  is,  the  siiiintnis 
dettsolihe  seven  (planets),  or  bis  demoniacal  counterpart  ;  compare  the  6+1  in 
the  Persian  teaching,  p.  163,  i. 


Fig.  186. — Assyrian 
demon,  comp.  fig. 
195.  Botta,  Mon. 
de  Nin.,  ii.  152 
(Sargon). 


ISAIAH  27Ö 

Isa.  XXXV.  5,  see  Ix.  1  ff".  (Blessed  age).  Isa.  xxxvii.  9;,  see  p.  286^  i. 
Isa.  xxxvii.  29,  see  p.  246,  fig.  180. 

Isa.  xxxviii.  10  :  Upon  the  gates  of  the  Underworld,  comp.  Job 
xxxviii.  17  ;  Ps.  ix.  14  ;  Matt.  xvi.  18  ;  Wisdoin  of  Solomon  xvi. 
13  (Rev.  i.  18,  "keys").  Comp.  3  Macc.  v.  50,  "May  God  by 
an  appearance  have  mercy  upon  those  who  stand  already  at  the 
gates  of  the  Underworld."" 

There  is  no  mention  in  the  Bible  of  a  gatekeeper  of  the  Under- 
world, biit  the  Greek  ti-anslator  of  Job  xxxviii.  1 71)  knows  of  such  ; 
the  later  Jews  also  make  Abraham  gatekeeper  of  hell,  as  the 
Catholic  legends  make  St  Peter. 

Isa.  xl.  26,  see  p.  18],  i. 

Isa.  xxxix.  1  :  The  embassy  from  Merodachbaladan.  The 
historical  connection  has  been  discussed  pp.  221  fF.  Upon  the 
meaning  of  the  "  congratulation  upon  recovery  ""■  (sha^al  shulmi), 
see  p.  221,  n.  1.     Fig.  187  gives  a  picture  of  Merodachbaladan. 

Isa.  xxxix.  1  and  7  :  The  messengers  of  Merodachbaladan 
were  eunuchs.^  The  prophet  says  successors  of  Hezekiah 
shall  serve  as  eunuchs  in  the  Babylonian  court  because  Hezekiah 
has  admitted  the  eunuchs  of  Merodachbaladan. 

Isa.  xl.  13,  Iv.  8  f.  :  We  may  compare  the  corresponding 
ideas  in  the  Babylonian  song  1\  .  R.  60,  see  p.  228,  i.,  line  33  fF. 

Isa.    xl.    13:    Who    hath    meted  ,  IV.    R.    60.     What  seems   good 

out    the     spirit     of    Yahveh,  !       to  a  man  himself,  is  bad  with 

and    who    instructs     him     as  !       God ;      what     is      despicable 

coimsellor  ?  \       according    to    a   maa's    idea, 

Isa.   Iv.    8    f :    For   my  thoughts  that  is  good  with  God.-     Who 

are    not   your    thoughts,    and  may   understand   the    counsel 

your  ways   are  not  iny  ways,  of  the   Gods  in   Heaven,  the 

is  the  saying  of  Yahveh  ;  but  design   of  God,   füll   of  dark- 

so    much    higher    as    are    the  ness  (.''),  who  founded  it !    How 

heavens    than    the    earth,    so  may  dull  men  understand  the 

much  are  iny  ways  higher  than  way  of  a  God. 

your   ways,  and  my  thoughts  , 

than  vour  thoughts.  ' 

Isa.  xli.  25:  The  seganim,  "rulers,"'"'  are  the  Assyrian 
shaknüti,  instituted  as  representatives  of  the  great  King 
(shakänu)  as  governors  of  the  provinces. 

'  See  Duhm,  /esaias,  upon  the  passage  ;  v,  i  should  be  read  G^Dn?, 
-  Said  in  bitter  irony. 

^   Upon  the  phonetic  change  compare  Sargon  =  SharrukTn. 
VOL.     II.  18 


274 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


Isa.  xlii.  1  tf.  {Tlie  .scrvanl  of  Yahveh),  see  p.  278. 
Isa.  xlix.  2.S  ("  Kings  shall  fall  upon  t/ieir  faces  nnd  lick  the  dust  of  thij 
feet  "),  see  p.  233,  i. 

Isa.  xliii.  1  ff',,  see  p.  145,  i.,  n.  1,  /  call  thee  by  thij  name,  v.  P, 
signifies  the  new  creation  (antithetic  sentence :  I  created  thee,  I 

formed  thee  before  birth,  v.  1^). 
This  is  a  parallel  passage  to  : 
I  redeeni  thee. 

The  bestowal  of  a  nanie 
being  equivalent  to  re-creation, 
vvasdiscussedat  p.  145,i.'-  Yah- 
veh is  the  Deliverer  (2?''ID1D)  in 
passing  through  the  ^Aaters  and 
in  passing  through  the  fire 
(niotif  of  water  and  fire-flood 
as  the  two  antitheses  in  the 
cycle,  see  p.  70,  i.  f.  ;  273,  i.). 
Isa.  xliv.  25,  comp.  Jer.  1. 
36,  refers  to  the  prophesying 
priests.  \Vith  G.  Haupt  we 
read  □"'11  (Babylonian  haru^ 
looker-on).^ 

Isa.  xliv.  28,  xlv.  1  ff'.: 
Cyrus  is  hailed  as  Deliverer. 
"  He  is  my  shepherd,  and  shall 
fnlfil  all  my  xcilV  In  the  inscription  of  Cyrus  (B.J.,  ii.  209 
ff".),  after  a  description  of  the  inisery  which  prevailed  in 
Babylonia,  it  is  said  : 

Marduk  took  pity.  He  looked  round  throughout  all  the  lands, 
considered  them,  and  sought  a  righteous  king  after  his  own  heart, 
to  take  by  the  band.  He  called  Kurash,  king  of  Anshan,  by  his 
name,  to  rule  over  the  whole  iiniverse,  lie  took  note  of  his  nanie 
(comp.  pp.  232  f ). 


Fig.  187.— Merodachbaladan  II.,  King 
of  Babylon,  rewards  '  one  of  his  digni- 
taries  with  landed  property,  Berlin 
Museum. 


'  A/a/ä  kaltishu,  see  p.  213,  n.  2. 

-  Compare  the  Babylonian  saying  :  "  Maidiik  created  nien  to  set  them  free,'" 
see  pp.  275  f.     For  detail,  B.N.  T.,  106. 

^  Haupt,  Babylonian  Elements  in  (he  Levitiaxl  A'/V/W ;  comp.  Zimmern,  K.A.  T., 
3rd  ed.,  589  f. 


ISAIAH  275 

Amongst  the  Babyloiiians,  as  amongst  the  exiled  Jews,  there 
existed  a  party  whicli  held  Cyrus  to  be  the  Deliverer.  Both  A\on 
Cyrus  to  their  side.  At  the  capture  of  Babvlon  the  temple  of 
Marduk  was  cai-efnlly  protected  and  his  cultus  favoured  : 

The  Lord,  who  awakens  the  dend  bv  his  ii.nvei-  wilHno-lv 
niessed  it.  •  '  '  »  . 

üver  iny  works  [the  tablet-writer  nmkes  Cvrus  .sayl  Mavduk 
rejoiced,  the  great  Lord,  and  blessed  me,  the  King,  a)id  Cambyses 
son  of  my  body  as  also  niy  whole  army  in  his  favou.-,  ^hilst  we 
joytully  glorihed  his  divinity  in  uprightness  betöre  him. 

Cyrus  also  restored  other  cults.  But  the  x-arious  gods 
appeared  to  him  to  be  only  the  priestly  seryants  of  Mavduk. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  cylinder  of  Cyrus  it  says  : 

May  all  the  gods  I  have  brought  l,ack  make  intercession  for 
me  with  Marduk. 

We  niay  assunie  it  was  from  the  same  point  of  yiew  that 
Cyrus  allowed  the  Jews  to  return  honie.  What  is  put  into  his 
mouth  in  Ezra  i.  2  fF.  and  in  2  Chron.  xxxyi.  23  niay  quite  well 
be  authentic  according  to  this  idea.^ 

We  haye  already  referred,  pp.  231  f.,  to  the  relationship  of  form 
with  the  greeting  of  Cyrus  by  Deutei-o-Isaiah.  But  it  was  not 
a  case  of  an  approach  in  form  only.  Both  greetings,  Baby- 
lonian  and  Biblical,  rest  upon  the  ^•iew  that  the  institution  of 
the  king  was  guided  from  heayen.  Only  the  heayen  of  the 
Babylonian  world  was  too  low.  At  p.  59,  i. \ve  met  A\ith  the  story 
in  the  myth  of  Etana,  in  which  Ishtar  and  Bei  "  look  round  for 
a  shepherd  in  heayen  and  for  a  king  upon  earth.'' 

We  find  therefore  that  in  the  Oriental  world  outsidc  the 
Bible  the  appearance  of  epoch-making  rulers  was  linked  to  the 
expectation  of  the  Sayiour.  The  king  was  then  the  incarnation 
of  the  saying  God,  who  appears  in  the  cycle  of  the  uniyerse 
year.2  As  such  he  was  endowed  with  certain  artificial  motifs, 
which  describe  the  blessed  age,  the  spring  of  the  uniyerse,  which 
the  expected  Deliverer  brings.-'' 

"  Thus  Lindner,  R.Pr.Th.,  3rd  ed.,  anicle  on  Cynis.  Upon  the  religion  of 
Zarathustra,  which  arose  then,  see  pp.  i6i    i    ff 

-  Pp.  1^,  i.  ff. 

-■'■  Examples  are  referred  to  pp.  77,  i.,  67,  89  f.  Further  detail  is  given  at  other 
passages.     A  review  of  the  connection  between  the  Ancient-Oriental  expectation 


27ß  GLOSSES   ON   THE    PROPHETS 

From  the  Standpoint  ot"  the  Christian  conception  of  the  world 
we  must  refuse  to  accept  the  deductions  drawn  by  Zimmern, 
K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  who  looks  tbr  the  ultimate  sign  of  the  idea  of  the 
heavenly  Deliverer-King,  as  recognised  by  the  Christian  dogma 
(Hkewise  of  the  "sufFering  righteous  one,"  etc.  ).  in  the  mythology 
itself.  The  mythology  is  tlie  popularising  of  a  teaching  the 
religious  ideas  of  which  are  related  to  those  of  the  Bible.  The 
mythology  itself  can  only  enlighten  and  explain  the  aiphabet  of 
the  religious  expression. 

Lsa.  xlv.  7,  Y2,:  " /,  Va/iivli,  fort/i  t/ic  light  and  creaie  darl- 
nes-s ;  I  inahr  pence  and  cvil  .  .  .  .  I  havc  madc  tlic  eartJi 
and  creaied  man ;  my  luinds  liave  stretrlwd  oiif  the  lieaven, 
and  I  liave  ordered  all  their  hoatr  These  words  are  ;v 
fonnulated  protest  against  the  Ancient-Oriental  niythological 
conception.  Thev  are  in  connection  with  the  greeting  to 
Cyrus,  which  is  highlv  interesting  from  a  religious  point  of 
view  (comp.  p.  274).  The  teaching  of  Zarathustra,^  which 
presents  a  particular  systematisation  of  the  religious  concep- 
tion of  the  Near  East,  arose  in  that  tinie  (sec  pp.  161,  i.  ff.). 
The  assuniption  that  the  prophct  comhnts  the  theology  of 
Zarathustra,  at  least  in  its  exoteric  interpretation,-  is  well 
founded. 

Jsa.  xlv.  20 :  Theij  are  xvithoiit  knozdedge  that  carrij  their 
graven  image  ofrcood,  and  pray  unto  a  god  tliat  can?wt  save. 
This  is  probably  h  reference  to  idolatrous  processions  as  shown 
in  hg.  131.     Comp.  Ep.  Jer.  i\.  14. 

lsa  xlvi.  1  is  .speaking  of  the  fall  of  Babylon,  and 
therefore  names  Bei  (Marduk)  and  Nebo,  the  two  chief  gods 
of    Babylon    and     Borsippa,    as    corresponding    to    the    event. 

of  the  Deliverer  and  that  of  the  Bible  was  attempted  in  a  Univeisiiy  lecluie  in 
Leipzig  (ist  March  1905)  by  A.  Jeremias.  There  is  an  exposition  upon  the  subject 
in  the  Dresdener  Journal  of  ijth  and  24th  March  1905.  The  principles  are 
repeated  in  Jeremias'  discussion  of  Cheyne's  "Bible  Problems"  in  the  Hibberl 
Journal,  iv.  I,  217  ff.  (Oct.  1905).  Gressmann's  book  upon  the  Israelite  e.x- 
pectation  makes  use  of  only  a  small  part  of  the  material  at  command,  and  therefore 
suffers  from  a  lack  of  comprehension  of  the  great  coherence  of  the  mythological  and 
religious  ideas. 

'  The  tradition  of  the  Parsees,  accordinsj  to  which  Zarathustra  began  his  careei 
as  teacher  "  when  forty  years  old  "  in  559,  and  died  in  522,  may  be  near  the 
historic  fact. 

■•^  The  esoteric  religion  of  Zarathustra  is  not  dualistic  in  the  ordinary  sense,  see 
A/oiioth.  Str'öwitvgert ,  p.  45. 


ISAIAH 


277 


The    «aying,    of    which    the    beginning    is    probablv    inissing, 


runs 


"•  Bei  is  bowed  down,  Nebo  stoopeth.'" 
Their  (the  Babylonians'')  idols  have  become  beasts  of  bürden, 
laden  as  with  a  load,  to  pasture  (cattle) 
they  stoop  and  bow  down  together, 
they  could  not  deliver  the  bürden, 
and  they  themselves  are  gone  into  captivity. 


i'm"'  Uli  ^Bpnii  I      r     1  '"■n — r —    .....     .  .p 


■■^ 


•WttMMIM 


'fi' 


U"- 


Fig.  i8S. — Band  from  the  bronze  gate  of  Balawat  (Shalmaneser  IL). 

Isa.  xlvii.  2  f. :  Expo.sure  of  the  legs  and  taking  off  the  train  of 
the  gai'uient  was  iniposed  u})oii  wonien,  taken  prisoners  in  war, 
as  a  huniiliatioii,  as  we  may  see  froni  the  representation  on  the 
bronze  gates  of  Balawat,  fig.  188.  The  threat  in  Nah.  iii.  -5  ;  Isa. 
XX.  4  ;  Jer.  xiii.  2^,  26  ;  Ezek.  xxiii.  29,  also  Micah  iv.  11,  refers 
to  this. 

Lsa.  1.  1  :  The  inother  receives  a  bill  of  divorceinent,  the 
children  are  sold.  In  both  cases  it  is  the  [)unishinent  of  trans- 
gression  Couipare  the  legal  principles  of  the  Hanniun'abi  Code, 
pp.  424  tt",  and  the  so-called  "  Sumerian  family  law." 

Isa.  li.  9,  see  p.  19-5,  i-,  n.  ■2  ;  p.  195,  i.,  n.  5.  Isa.  li.  9  ft",  see 
p.  194,  i.  (Rahab). 

^  See  Winckler,  J^. ,  iii.  226  f.  Heie,  tiierefoie,  it  is  not  speaking  of  jnocessions 
of  idols  (Delitzsch,  Babel  iiiid  Bibel,  i.  20,  59J,  but  probably  it  is  su  in  Isa.  xlv. 
20,  see  abuve. 


278  GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 

The  Servant  of  Yahveh 

The  servant  of  Yahveh  who  is  described  in  the  songs  in  Isa. 
xlii.  1-7;  xlix.  1-6;  1.  4-11  ;  lii.  13;  liii.  12  is,  in  the  highest 
sense,  a  figure  of  the  Deliverer.  He  is,  speaking  in  "  Baby- 
lonian,'"  a  figure  of  Tannnuz  embellished  by  the  prophet.^ 

Therefore  in  these  songs  also  \ve  nieet  with  the  motifs  of  the 
expected  Deliverer. 

;|;  1.  He  is  of  mysterious  urigin.  xlix.  1  :  "called  froin  the  wuinb, 
from  the  bowels  of  his  mother,  his  iiame  was  mentioned."  We  find 
the  same  figure  of  speech  at  the  call  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
Jer.  i.  ö,  likewise  at  the  call  of  Cyrus,  and  of  Assyrian  kings,  who 
had  themselves  represented  as  Deliverer,  see  p.  274. 

xlix.  2:  "  Hidden  in  the  shadow  of  Yahveh's  band,  a  polished 
shaftj  still  hidden  in  the  quiver";  liii.  2:  "  growing  up  like  a 
tender  plant  [literally,  suckling]  before  Yahveh  and  like  a  root 
out  of  a  dry  ground."  The  words  recall  the  deliverer  motif  of  the 
semah  of  miraculous  growth  (p.  280)  and  Neser  (p.  32). 

2.  He  is  despised,  forsaken  by  men,  oppressed  with  grief  liii.  5 
(^hno,  "  wounded "  )  cannot  mean  leprosy,  as  Duhni  thinks.  It 
should  be  taken  as  one  slain  by  the  sword,  as  in  Zech.  xii.  10  ("ipi);, 
possibly  as  crucifixion.  The  motif  of  the  suffering  envoy  of  God  is 
also  recognised  by  Plato,  De  rcpubl.,  ii.  ;;6]  f  :  "  .  .  .  but  they  say 
that  the  righteous  is  thus  qualitied,  scourged,  bound,  blinded,  and 
after  having  borne  all  persecution,  is  bound  to  a  pillar^  in  order  that 
he  may  not  ajjpear  to  be  riohteous,  but  rather  niay  long  to  be 
righteous." 

.3.  The  servant  of  Yahveh  is  exalted  : 

(rt)  His  soul  is  carried  away  (motif  word  n\h,  »s  in  the  case  of 
Enoch,  Elias  =  Babylonian  lekfi  in  the  case  of  the  Babylonian 
Noah,  see  ]>.  240,  i.).  liii.  S  :  "  From  oppression  and  judg- 
nient  taken  away."  - 
{h)  He  will  rise  again.  He  lives,  has  children^  is  a  bounteous 
king,  he  takes  Yahveh's  concerns  into  his  hands  (liii.  10), 
and  his  age  is  renewed.  The  dclivcrance,  which  is  appar- 
ent  in  Job,  is  here  f>reatly  outdone.-' 

'  Comp.  p.  67,  Juseph  as  Tammuz ;  p.  99,  i.,  josiah  as  Tanimuz,  and  so  011. 

-  Luther's  translation  gets  the  right  meaning.     The  text  miist  be  mutilated. 

■'  Theologically  the  most  important  points  are  :  (i)  The  vicarious  suflering. 
"  He  bore  the  sins  of  many,  took  the  place  of  the  deserter."  "  Yahveh  put  upon 
him  the  sins  ofus  all."  Therefore  an  anangement  between  Yahveh  and  his  servant, 
with  the  deliverance  (that  is,  "  Yahveh's  intention  ")  in  view.  Not  a  deliverance 
Ihrough  Buddhistic  sufferings,  but  by  a  patient  acceplance  of  the  punishment,  by 
means  of  which  a  catharsis  is  created,  which  makes  it  possible  for  God  again  to 
hare  intercourse  wilh  His  people  ;  see  Duhm  upon  the  passage.  There  is  a  heathen 
analogy   to    the   idea   of  Substitution   in    /Eschylus,    in    Prometheus   Boniid,    v. 


ISAIAH  279 

(c)  He  brings  the  blessed  age.      Ui)on  the  motifs  of  xlii.  7,  see 

Isa.  Ix.  1  ff. 
Isa.  liii.  8,  see  p.  241,  i.      Isa.  liv.  9,  see  p.  271,  i.,  n.  2.      Isa.  Ivii. 
8^  see  p.  103. 

Isa,  Iviii.  9  :  Putting  forth  of  the  finger  was  the  terraination 
of  a  delivery  of  judgment.-^  To  point  with  the  finger — for 
exaniple,  at  the  stars — is  prohibited  in  the  East. 

Isa.  Iviii.  13,  see  p.  199,  i- 

Isa.  Ix.  1  fF.  :  Description  of  the  blessed  age ;  comp.  xxxv.  5, 
xlii.  7,  and  in  addition  Matt.  xi.  5,  or  Luke  vii.  22.  In  Matt, 
xi.  11  the  motif  of  the  Separation  of  the  ages  is  directly  given, 
and  Matt.  x.  35  places  the  time  of  the  curse  in  Opposition  ;  see 
B.N.T.,  97. 

Isa.  Ix.  7,  see  p.  51.     Isa.  Ix.  ^,  see  p.  284,  i. 

Isa.    Ix.    18 :    The    walls    are    called    ''  Salvation,'"    the   gate 

"  Glory."     It  is  an  Oriental  custoni  to  give  names  to  walls  and 

gates ;  it  is  so  in  Babylon  (Gate  of  Ishtar,  see  p.  154,  i.),  and  in 

Nineveh,    as    in    Jerusalem    (Jer.    xxvi.    10 :    the  new    gate    of 

Vahveh). 

Isa.  Ix.  20,  see  p.  178,  i.  Isa,  Ixiii.  9,  see  p.  54.  Isa.  Ixiii.  16^  see 
p.  43,  n.  1.     Isa.  Ixv.  3,  see  p.  114,  n.  1. 

Isa.  Ixv,  11  :  Gad,  the  gocl  of  good  fortune,  offen  found  in 
names  of  places,  as  in  Ba'al-Gad,  Isa,  xi.  17,  possibly  also  pre- 
senting  itself  in  the  name  of  the  tribe  Gad  ;  it  appears  repeatedly 
in  Assyrian  letters  as  Ga-di-ja-a,  Ga-di-ilu ;  see  Zimmern, 
/r.^.T.,"3rded.,  479f. 

Isa.  Ixv.  25.  Upon  the  gloss,  "  Bit/  the  serpent's  bread  shall  he 
(bist,"  see  pp.  233,  i.  f. 

Jeremiah. — Upon  the  motif  of  the  divine  call  before  birth  to 
be  Nabi'  of  the  people,  Jer.  i.  5,  see  p.  278. 

Jer.  vii.  18,  comp,  xliv,  17-19,  25.  The  Malkat  hash.shamajim, 
for  whom  the  Jewish  w^omen  baked  cakes,  is  the  Babylonian- 

1026  ff.  (comp.  B.N.T.,  116),  and  in  Sophocles  in  CEdipiis  in  Colonos,  v.  49S  f. 
(2)  The  appropriation  of  the  deliverance  (a)  by  theconfession  of  those  who  despised 
him,  Isa.  liii.  5  ff.,  comp.  Zech.  xii.  10  ff.  ;  {b)  by  his  becoming  theshepherd  of  the 
sheep  who  were  going  astray. 

^  See  Winckler,  Das  Gesetz  Haininiiiabis,  p.  j6,  n.  i. 


280  GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 

Assvrian  Ishtar,  the  Canaaiiite  Astarte. ^  Cake-baking  is  a 
characteristic  elemeiit  in  the  cult  of  Ishtar  ;  comp.  p.  99,  i.  The 
Word  kaxcän,  which  is  used  here.  signifies  in  the  Babylonian 
cult  the  cakes  of  Ishtar  :  Kmnanu.  In  K  2001  it  is  said  :  '  ''  O 
Ishtar,  I  prepared  for  thee  a  pure  preparation  f'rom  milk,  cakes, 
.salted  roast  bread  {kamän  tumr'i)^'' :  conijmre  with  this  p.  99,  i.. 
and  61.  above.  A  Babylonian  ideogram  for  iihulahiK  "  off'eiing,"" 
signifies  exactly  •'  bread  of  Ishtar." 

Epiph  ,  (idr.  H(vr.,  Ixxviii.  23,  Ixxix.  1  :  ''  Some  wonien  go  so  far 
as  to  ofFer  cakes  {KoXkvpi^a  rira)  in  the  name  and  to  the  honour  of 
the  blessed  Virgin."  "  Upon  a  cei'tain  day  of  the  year  they  present 
bread  and  ofFer  it  in  the  name  of  Mary.  But  they  all  eat  of  this 
bread." 

Jer.  viii.  1  ;  comp.  Ba.  ii.  24  f. :  The  bones  of  Jewish  kings, 
priests,  prophets,  and  Citizens  were  cast  out  of  their  graves. 
This  agrees  with  the  gruesome  custom  of  \\ar  amongst  the 
Assyrians.  Sennacherib  dug  up  the  bones  of  Merodach-baladan's 
predecessors.  Assurbanipal  relates  that  after  the  overthrow  of 
Susa  he  devastated  and  uncovered  the  mausoleums  of  the  kings  : 

I  destroyed  the  burial-places  of  their  kings, ^  1  took  their  bones 
away  with  nie  to  Assyria,  I  laid  unrest  upon  their  ghosts  and  shut 
them  oft"  from  the  burial  feast  of  the  libation. 

Jer.  viii.  2  (star-worship),  see  pp.  245,  24-8.  Jer.  x.  2,  see  p.  181,  i. 
Jer.  xvii.  6,  see  p.  42.  Jer.  xxii.  18  (lament  for  Jehoiakim), 
see  p.  127. 

Jer.  xxiii.  o  :  Zemah  zedek,  "  righteous  plant,"  is  a  term  of 
the  expected  Deliverer ;  comp.  Isa.  iv.  2,  xi.  1  ;  Zech.  iii.  8,  as  in 
Matt.  ii.  23,  neser  ("  branch ")  (play  of  words  upon  the  namc 
Nazareth). 

In  the  teaching  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  caused  themselves  to  be 
glorified  as  incarnations  of  the  deity,  the  term  ::emah  zedek  is 
used  with  same  meaning,  as  the  inscription  of  Narnaka  shows  ;  ' 
calling  the  Christians  Nazarenes  has  its  ultimate  explanation  in 

'  Statue  of  the  mother-goddess,  pp.  iiS,  i.,  and  6i  (figs.  38  and  124J. 

^  Jensen,  K.B.,  vi.  380,  511. 

•'  Upon  the  explanation  of  gigiinü,  and  upon  the  fact,  see  Baby/.  Vorstell,  vom 
Leben  nach  den  Tode,  pp.  51  f, 

*  Vüfe  Landau,  No.  105— the  text  is  mutilated  ;  it  is  speaking  of  the  successors 
of  Ptülemy,  perhaps  Cleopatra  is  meant  ;  see  Winckler,  Ar//.  Sehr.,  ii.  80. 


JEREMIAH 


281 


this.      The   naine   Nozairian   contains   the    same    raotit"   of   the 
expected  Deliverer.^ 

Jer.   XXV.    11,   See  p.   24t3,   i.,   n.    .".     Jer.  xxv.    28,   see  j).    289,   i- 
Jer.  xxv.  25,  see  p.  277. 

Jer.    xxxi.    19:     ''''After    I    hccaiiic    zcv'.vc,    /   .s-uiotc    lipon     uuj 
thiprhr       There    is    the    .saine     (»•e.sture    of    inournino-    in     the 

in  O  O 

As.syrian,  for  example  in 
the  descent  into  hell  of 
Ishtar.  The  same  ges- 
ture in  the  Oihjsney^  xiii. 
198. 

Jer.  xxxii.  10  ff. :  The 
sale  of  land  in  Ana- 
thoth.  ''And  I  icrotc 
in  a  deed'^  the  tcnii.s 
and  conditions;  and  sealed 
H,  and  called  icitnesse-s. 
Then  I  xeeighed  the  motte ij 
in  the  ■s-cales.'"  This  a])- 
peai's  to  be  a  bargaiii 
after  the  Babvlonian 
nianner :  written  Lipon 
clay,  the  conditions  (that 
is  to  say,  in  regard  to 
forfeiture)  added  to  it,  the  witnesses  noted,  and  the  seal  rolled 
over  the  nanies  of  the  witnesses.  '"''And  I  took  the  deed-s  of  the 
pnrchase,  thdt  ichieh  icv/.s-  clowd'^  and  that  ic/iieh  Tca-i  open^  and 
gave  theni  to  Barach.''''  It  is  probably  treating  of  a  fablet  of 
clay,  like  those  Babvlonian  documents  which  contained  the 
contract  enclosed  in  an  outer  cover ;  the  clay  fablet  was 
wrapped  in  another  layer,  and  upon  the  outer  cover  of  clay  the 
Contents  were  inscribed  together  with  the  nanies  of  the  witnesses, 
and  the  seal  was  rolled  upon  it  also,^     According  to  v.  14  they 

^  Upon  Nezer-Nazareth,  see  B.iV.T.,  56.     Upon  the  Nzr  motif  compare  above, 
p.  32.     Upon  the  related  idea  of  the  "  blossoming  staff,"  see  p.  143. 
"  Sepher,  Assyrian  shiprii  ;  comp.  p.  4S,  i. 

3  Dinn  ;  it  should  be  translated  thus,  on  account  of  the  antithesis. 
■*  See  fig.  189.      Upon  the  matter,  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  171. 


Fig.  189. — Ancient-Babylonian  contract  with 
the  "cover"'  broken  oft.  Original  in  the 
author's  possession. 


282 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


were  kept  in  an  earthen  ehest.  Sellin  found  one  of  them  at 
Ta'annek,  comp.  p.  343,  i.  In  Hab.  ii.  2  also  the  writing  must 
be  taken  to  be  engraved  upon  clay.  1  Macc.  xiv.  18,  viii.  22, 
the  writing  was  graven  upon  brass  tablets. 


Jer.   xxxii.    14,  see  p.  343,  i.     Jer.  xxxi\ 
Jer.  xxxiv.  18  f.,  see  p.  32. 


8   ff".,  see  p.    HO,  n. 


Jer.  xxxix.  3,  13 :  IQ'IT   certainly  does  not  agree  with  the 

ancient  Persian  IVIagu, 
or  the  Greek  ^tayo?. 
But  this  last  word 
is  certainly  related  to 
theBabylonian  priestly 
title  i)ui]}lifi,  which, 
according  to  Delitzsch, 
Handxi\,  397,  origin- 
ally  signified  "  the 
shaven."  Knudtzon, 
Gebete  an  den  Sonne)i- 
g'ott,  170,  looks  upon 

Fig.  190.— Document  with  impression  of  seal  ^^'^"^  ^S  a  reproduc- 
belongintj  to  the  business  house  of  Murashü  &  tion  of  the  Assyrian 
Sons.     (Fifth  Century. )  ,.,i       ,.  ,  ~, 

title   lor  ambassadors, 

of  which  there  is  repeated  evidence,  rab  viu-gi,  the  more  exact 

nieaning  of  which  we  do  not  know. 

Jer.  xliii.  13:  '■'■And  he  zcill  break  the  Ashera  of  Ra  (God  of 
the  Sun)  in  the  land  of  Egypt^  and  the  temples  of  the  gods  of 
Egypt  shall  he  burnt  zcith  jireT  In  ÜJDtü  rr^l  nill^D  the  rr^l 
is  due  to  dithogra])hy.  The  Ashera  of  Ra  were  the  two 
colunins  at  the  entrance  of  the  Tempil.  ^ 

Jer.  1.  2:  Merodach  together  with  Bei.  An  inaccuracy 
j)resents  itself  here ;  Bei  is  =  Merodach,  see  }).  135,  i.,  and  see 
p.  276  upon  Isa.  xlvi,  1. 

Jer.  1.  12,  see  p.  29 1,  i. 

Jer.  li.  34 :  Nebuchadrez/ar  as  the  dragon  !  Comp.  li.  44,  the 
dragon    in    Babylon,    which    the    apocryphal    \\riters    describe, 

'  See  p.  157,  i.,  n.  2,  and  fig.  60;  further,  p.  103,  and  Winckler,  AllL  Uitler- 
ituh.,  pp.  180  f. 


EZEKIEL 


283 


Bel-Marduk,  antagonist  of  Tiamat,  is  for  the  prophets  himself 


see    p. 


f.: 


In 
thc 


Fig.  191. — Stand  supported  by  cherubim,  from 
Zenjiili.  Original  in  the  Museum  at  Con- 
stantinople. 


the  dragon. 


Jer.    li.     42, 
294,  i.,  n.  4. 

Ezcläel  i.  1 

thc  ßfth    ijear 

captiv'ity  of  Khig  Je- 

hoiach'ui,  in  the  foinih 

\inonth'\,    on    thc  ßfth 

day  of  the    month^    (is 

I  zc'fis  among  tlie  cap- 

tives  (in  the  land  of  the 

Clialdeans)  hy  the  cancd 

Chebar.     This  must  be 

understood    according 

to  the  Babylonian  chroiiology  (see  Neh.  i.  1),  which  began  with 

■yrji  the  spring  equinox.  The  fourth 
month  was  Tarn mnz,  about  our 
Jiily.  Ezekiel  lived  in  a  colony 
of  exiles  bv  the  Chebar.^  It 
has  been  proved  by  the  excava- 
tion«  of  the  American  Nippur 
Expedition,  189S,  that  this 
>  not  to  be  taken  as  the 
liver  Chaboras,'-^  bv  which  the 
exiles  of  the  northern  kingdoni 
settled,  see  2  Kings  xvii.  6, 
xviii.  11,  but  as  the  Närii  Ka- 
ba-ru,  a  large  navigable  canal 
near  Nippur, the  })resentNiffer.'^ 

^  Sept,  in  Ezekiel,   Xoßdp  ;  in  Euse- 
bius,  Onomast.,  Xcoßap. 

^  Schrader  {A'.A.T.,   ist  ed.,  comp. 
F.    Delitzsch,    l^Fo   /a^  das   Paradies  ? 
pp.  47  f.,   1S4)  had  already  considered 
one   of  the    Babylonian    canals.      On 
phonetic  principles  also  there  could  be  no  connection  between  Kebar  and  Habür. 

"  See  J.  Peters,  Nippur,  1897,  ii.  pp.  106,  192,  and  Hilprecht,  Thc  Bahylouiaii 
Expedition  of  ihe  Univcrsity  of  Pennsylvania  ;  the  canal  is  Iwice  named  in  the 
contracts  in  the  ninth  volume. 


Fig.  192. — Genius  with  eagle's  head. 


284 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


Hilprecht  looks  for  the  ancient  Chebar  canal  in  the  present 
Shatt-en-Nil,  flowing  thirtv-six  yards  wide 
throLigh  Nippur. 

In  1903  the  American  excavatioiis  dis- 
covered  here,  aniongst  other  things,  the 
archives  of  a  gveat  conjinercial  hoiise,  be- 
longing  to  Mura.shii  iS:  Sons.  Fig.  190 
shows  a  business  docunient  froni  these 
archives.  Numerous  Jewish  names  are 
nientioned  in  the  documents,  which  show 
tliat  the  exiled  Jews  becanie  natural ised 
in  Babvlonia  and  took  part  in  the  com- 
■In  V  '.'■f'if-  ^J  niercial  life,  just  as  it  is  assunied  in  the 
Book  of  Tobit  was  done  in  the  Assyrian 
exile,  when  it  describe.s  Tobias  as  Assyrian 
official  of  finance. 

E/ek.     i.    4 :     The    appearance    of   the 
chariot  of  Yahveh  coniing  from  the  north. 


L'j)ou  the  north  as  dwelHng-place  of  the 
divinity,  see  Job  xxxvii.  22.  Krätzschniar, 
in  his  commentary    upon    the    passage,  ex- 


FlG.  193. — Genius  wilh 
head  of  a  man  and 
eagle's  feel. 

))resses  the  idea  that 
the  mythical  nortli 
^^•as  meant  :  in  chap. 
xi.  the  chariot  of 
God  went  towards 
the  east,  and  the 
special  mountain  of 
Yahveh,  Sinai,  lay 
iiuich  more  in  tlu- 
soutii  ;  a  Iso  SU  cli 
mythologi  cal  allu- 
sions  -wcfiild  not  Ix- 
consistent  in  tiu' 
prophet  who  in- 
vcighed  against  the 
idea  that  Yahvcii 
had  already  forsakcn 
the  land,  viii.  12,  ix. 
9.  But  this  would 
not  jirevent  the 
Bahvlonian  idi>a, 
Nvliich   he  certainly  knew^   iVoui   being   betört;   l)is  luinil. 


Vir,.  194. 


-Genius  with  body  oi  a  bull  and 
head  of  a  man. 


EZEKIEL 


285 


The  light  in  the  niidst  of  the  cloud  flashed  like  hashttio/, 
that  is,  in  Assvrian,  cthmarn^  a  brilliant  nietal  with  which  the 
pavement  of  the  house  of  the  god,  for  example  in  the  tinie  of 
Xebuchadne/zar,     was 


<^5Ä 


%1 


oveidaidJ       In     the 

midst    of  the    appear- 

ance  E/ekiel  saw  sonie- 

thing  hke  Hving  crea- 

tures.     They  had   tlie 

figure  of  a  man,  each 

with  fouv  faces  :  a  face 

of   a    man,    and    of  a 

hon,    and    of    an    ox, 

and     of     an     eagle. 

Thev  bore  the  throne, 

lipon   which   tlie  deitv 

went  towards  the  foin- 

points  of  the   heaven. 

The  four  heads  of  the 

four  figure.s  (each  one 

having    four    heads    is 

probably  a  later  error  * 

correspond  to  the  four 

kinds    of    Babylonian 

genii  :  in   the  form    of   a    man,  of   an  eagle,  of  an  ox,  and  ot 

a  hon  ;  see  tig.   19^   ff.     The  "  four  beasts "  in  the  Apocalypse 

(Rev.    vii.   11)  were   taken  from    Ezekiel  and  taken  in  ecclesi- 

astical  symbohsm  thence  and  apphed  to  the  four  evangehsts,- 

Since  the  figures  belong  to   Ancient-Oriental  fancy,  so  natur- 

ally    their    meaning    is  cosmic-astraL     The}-  are,  however,  not 

four    signs    of    the    zodiac,"    but    the    representatives    of  the 

'   F.  Delitzsch,  in  Baer's  ///;.  Ezec/iiel,  upon  the  passage. 

^  See  above,  p.  27,  i.,  and  B.N.  7'.,  89  f.  Jewish  theology  is  acquainted  with  the 
equivalence  of  Michael  =  Hon  ;  Gabriel  =  bull  ;  Uriel  =  nian  ;  Raphael- eagle.  The 
merkaba  (comp.  Wisdom  xlix.  S  :  op.ua  xf.ooyß'V)  ^^'^^  held  to  bean  "  unfathomable 
mystery"  (comp,  for  example  Chagiga,  xxi.,  fol.  \-£°,  13'^).  The  Kabbala  is  füll 
of  interpretationsofthe  w£;-/^(?(Ja — Sammael's  chariot,  drawnbyman,  snake,  ox,  and 
ass,  was  represented  as  counterpait. 

■'  Bull,  lion,  aquarius,  eagle  are  usually  accepted  as  the  four  quarters  of  the 
zodiac.     Thus  already  in  Nork.     But  this  does  not  agree,  see  p.  27,  i. 


Fir..  195.  —Genius  with  body  of  a  lion  and  head 
of  a  man  (dcmons  above,  comp.  flg.  185). 


286 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


divine  power  at  the  t'ouv  ''ends  of  the  earth,""  as  we  have 
alreadv  iiiore  fully  discussed,  p.  27,  i.  The  platform  is  called 
raqkr.  and  represents  the  zodiac  in  the  niicrocosmos  of  the 
divine  chaviot.  uhich  represents  the  uhole  heavens.  Fig.  191, 
tVoni  the  Zenjirli  treasures,  ilhi^trates  a  god's  chariot,  sucli 
as  E/ekiel  i.  1  had  in  niind.' 

A  verso  hy  the  poet  Omayya,  in   Molianimed's  time,  jiroves  that 
in  the  Arabian  tnuhtion  also  these  Hcrures  were  known  : 

"  A  man  and  an  ox  at  tlie  foot  fit"  a  man,  on  his  i'iglit, 
And  the  ea<ili-  lipon  tlie  otlicr  side,  and  a  crouchino-  lion.  " 

(M.r.A.G.',  1901.  i287.) 


Fir.s.  196  and  197. — Mj-thological  Ornaments  from  Nineveh,  representing 
on  one  side  winged  beasts  with  nien's  heads. 

Lion  and  eagle  play  a  great  pai-t  in  artistic  representations  and 
inscriptions  as  early  as  the  time  of  Gudea  (Gndea's  dveam,  see 
p.  298),  see  fig.  95,  p.  320,  i.,  where  the  eagle  holds  on  to  tlie  hacks 
of  two  lions  with  his  claws,  and  fig.  9'-. 

Ezek.  i.  22  ff.,  see  p.  179,  i- 

Ezek.  iii.  15:  Ezekiel  goes  froni  Chebar  to  Tel-Ab'tl),  the  chief 
place  of  the  exiles,  and  stay.s  theve  seven  days  (!)  in  a  stupor.'- 

'  VVe  niay  imagine  the  pedestal  placed  upon  wheels,  supported  by  cherubini  at 
each  of  the  four  corners.  We  niay  draw  attention  also  in  this  connection  to  the 
noteworthy  monument  in  Botta's  Moiiiiiiicnis  de  Nüjirc,  Table  164.  No.  3  (fig. 
197  f.),  the  one  side  of  which  shovvs  similar  "cherubs," 

-  Klostermann  has  pointed  out,  on  the  ground  of  exhaustive  medical  studies, 
that  the  visions  and  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  were  the  result  of  a  cataleptic  State 


EZEKIEL  287 

A  Babylonian  name  was  to  be  expected.  The  designation 
tü-ahuhi,  frequent  in  the  cuneiform  writings,  has  correctly  for 
long  past  been  compared  with  "  mounds  of  the  Deluge."  Those 
mounds  of  ruins  were  looked  upon  by  the  Babylonians  as  re- 
nmins  of  the  Dekige.  Krätzschraar,  Ezec}nel,  upon  the  passage, 
thniks  that  Nebuchadnezzar  put  a  colony  of  the  Jeus  upon  a 
nameless  Ul-aUh  in  order  that  they  should  niake  the  district 
habitable.  From  this  nameless  place  the  Hebrews  would  then 
have  made  a  iM-aUh,  "  mound  of  ears  of  com.-  Probably  Ül- 
ah/h  is  only  an  error  in  writino-. 

Ezek.  iv.   1  :  "  Tal;    thee  a    Üle  and  lay  it  hefore  thee,  and 
Vortray     upon     H    a    cityr       We     have     many    examples    of 
Babylonian    architectural    plans    scratched    upon    clay,   see   fig. 
205  f.i     The  plan    of  Jerusalem  was    to    be  scratched  with  t 
Stylus    upon   a   Babylonian   tile  (comp.    fig.  206).     Babylonian 
nietnods    of    writing    were    known    to     the    Israelites."^     The 
Babylonians  and  the  nations  dependent  upon  them  for  civilisa- 
tion    (Egyptians     and     Canaanites     in    the    Amarna   age,    and 
Elanntes)  graved  the  writings  upon  stone,  or  scratched  them  in 
clay,    which   was   kiln-dried,  or   burnt  "in   the   fierv   furnace " 
Even   when  they  knew  of  the  papyrus,  thev  still  preferred  the 
stone    fablet.       \Vhilst    the    wood    fablet    of  the    Greeks    and 
Romans  has  been  destroyed  by  time,  the  Babylonian  clay  fablet 
has  endured.     Only  in  the  tes.9e?ri  hospifalis^^of  the  Romans  we 
find   something   similar.       We    have    found    bronze    tablets    in 
1  Macc.  xiy.  18,  yiii.  22.     In  Ronie  they  were  in  use  from  the 
seventh  Century  of  the  city.^     Bronze  tablets  with  inscriptions 
(see  fig.  64,  p.  208,  i.)  have  been  found  in  South  Arabia. 

Ezek.    V.     5 :    Jerusalem.  —  and  countnes   round   about    her. 
Jerusalem    as    centre    of  the    world  and    navel    of  the    earth, 

{Th    St.   zind  Krit.,   1877,  391  ff.).     This   explains  the  frequent  Substitution  of 
symbolic  figures  in  the  orations. 

1  Statue  of  Gudea  (fig.  84  gives  the  head  of  a  similar  statue).  Upon  his  lap 
hes  the  plan,  specially  reproduced  fig.  205.  Another  statue  of  Gudea  has  upon 
his  lap  the  Scale  and  Stylus  with  which  the  writing  and  drawing  was  scratched 
(figs.  204  ff.) ;  comp.  Ezek.  xl. 

"  See  pp.  323,  i. 

^  Probably  imitated  from  the  stone  compacts  of  hospitality  of  the  Plioenicians. 
See  R.  V.  Jhering,   Vorgeschichte  der  Indoeuropäer,  pp.  170  ff. 


'288 


GI.OSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


Babvlonian.  marK-as  shmne  u  iHzitim^  "the  link  between  heaven 
and  earth.""  Here  it  has  a  special  religious  meaning,  but  it 
conesponds  to  the  Ancient-Oriental  conception.^  The  grouping 
of  the  countiies  of  the  earth  round  Jerusalem  in  niedieval  maps 
(see  flg.  19(S)  agrees  with  the  specifically  religious  nieaning  of 
this  passctge. 

Mohrunnu'd's  conception  of  the  world  also  took  Jerusalem  for 
centre,  and  upjK-r  ))art  of  the  eavth,  before  he  introduced  Mecca  in 

its  place.  Mohannned's  jour- 
ney  through  the  air  to  Jeru- 
salem is  an  ascension,  a 
Visit  to  the  highest  heaven. 
Therefore  in  Arabie  Jerusa- 
lem is  ealled  el  Kuds  (the 
sanctuary,  Kodesh);  s.v.  Lan- 
dau, M.V.A.a.,  1904.,  p.  .57. 

Ezek.  V.  l-^.  Pestilenee, 
famine,  and  the  sword  are  to 
he  the  means  of  destruction, 
see  p.  ^252.  i.,  I.  192  ff. 

Ezek.   vii.    2  :     The  four 
lanephoi  of  the  earth.     As- 
syrian,  k'ippät  of  the  heavens 
and  the  earth,  er  the  four 
(piarters  of  the  world.     Here  it  is  the  four  directions.- 

E/ek.  viii.  1  ff.  :  This  chapter  gives  evidenee  of  the  heathen 
c'ults  which  hadarisen  in  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  the  Babvlonian 
vassals  of  Zedekiah  (certainly  it  is  not  onlv  a  retrospect  upon 
the  tinie  of  Manasseh,  see  Krätzschmar,  Ezechiel,  upon  the 
passage).  The  Teniple  was  arranged  like  a  heathen  temple. 
The  Opposition  to  heathenisni  was  never  quite  consistentlv 
carried  out. 

1.  At  the  north  gate '^  of  the  Teniple  stood  the  "  statue  of 
the  idol.""  The  chronicler  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  7,  15)  assumes  that 
it  was  identical  with  the  Asherah  formerly  erected  by  Manasseh 
(2  Kings  xxi.  7)  and  put  aside  by  Josiah.     The  reference  is  to 

'  See  pp.  54,  i.  f.  China  was  "  Central  Kingdom."  Baghdad  was  the  "  navel  " 
of  the  Islamic  world.     Delphi  was  current  as  ufj-cpaKos  ;  see  Pindar,  Pytkag.,  iv.  131. 

*  Haupt  and  Jensen,  comp.  Z.A.,  vi.  i,  520,  explain  kippatii  as  "vault"' 
according  to  the  Aramaic. 

•'  Upon  the  importance  and  nieaning  of  the  north,  see  p.  290. 


Fig.  iqS. — 'Median-al  map  of  the  world. 


EZEKIEL  289 

some  statue  such  as   is   also    fbund    in    Syrian    or    Babylonian 


Fig.  199. 


Fig.  200, 


Fig.  201. 
Reliefs  from  east  side  of  the  outer  city  gate  in  Zenjirli. 

teniples,   representing   the   dragon   of  chaos,    or    .something    of 
the  kind. 

2.  The    niystei'ies    of   the    seventy    elders,   who    in   the   dark 

VOL.    II,  19 


290  GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 

Chamber  in  the  gate  ofFer  incense  to  pictures  of  creeping  things 
and  beasts  which  were  portrayed  upon  the  wall.  We  may 
imagine  representations  like  that  of  the  dragon  (fig.  58)  and  of 
the  remft  (fig.  28)  and  of  the  figures  of  beasts  such  as  shown 
upon  the  gates  of  Zenjirli,  see  figs.  199-201.  The  offering  of 
incense  does  not  necessarily  point  to  an  Egyptian  cidt.  The 
Babvlonians  also  used  offerings  of  incense.^  The  inscviptions  of 
Sargon  teil  of  "  stores  of  frankincense."  The  epic  of  Gilgamesh 
alreadv  teils  of  offerings  of  incense  before  Shamash,  and  in 
IV'.  R.  20,  No.  1,  it  is  said :  "  plentiful  offerings  were  niade, 
frankincense  was  laid  up  in  störe."  At  the  end  of  the  "  journey 
to  hell  of  Ishtar^the  rising  spirits  of  the  dead  ''smell  frank- 
incense." The  exact  South  Arabian  incense  (Hebrew  HDl?) 
cannot  be  definitely  proved  in  the  Babylonian  sacrificial  cult 
from  the  documents  known  to  us.  The  mysteries,  which  always 
took  place  by  night  (v.  12),  are  of  Babylonian  origin.- 

3.  Wonien  sit  at  the  north  gate.  This  signifies  the  mourning 
for  Hadad-Rimmon,  Zech.  xii.  11  f.  The  women  weep  at  the 
north  gate  because  the  north  point  is  the  critical  point  of 
Tamniuz :  the  summer  solstice,  which  brings  the  death  of 
Taniniuz.  The  meaning  and  importance  of  this  calendar  festival 
was  fully  discussed  on  pp.  91,  i.  ft'.,  and  125,  i.  ff.  The  VIth 
tablet  of  the  epic  of  Gilgamesh  calls  Tammuz  the  husband  of 
Ishtar^s  youth,  and  says  that  Ishtar  "  niade  him  weep  every  year.'" 
Like  the  figure  of  Osiris  for  the  Egyptians,  he  embodied  for 
the  Babylonians  the  hope  of  resurrection  and  the  expected 
Deliverer. 

Ezek.  viii.  12  ;  com}),  ix.  9  :  Yahvch  liatli  forsaken  the  land 
and  Yahveh  seeth  iis  not.  This  is  the  heathen  Oriental  present- 
ment  in  the  niouth  of  the  people.  The  ark  had  been  taken 
away.  Yahveh  had  left  the  land,  as  when  in  Babylonia  the 
statues  of  the  gods  were  carried  aAvay  into  the  enemy's  country, 
and  thus  the  supremacy  of  the  deity  ovcr  the  land  was 
destroyed.'' 

'   Kutiinnu  ;  upon  incense,  comp.  p.   114. 

-  See  Monotheist.  Ström.,  comp,  above,  p.  85,  i. 

•^  Compare  with  this  p.  230.  From  these  kinds  of  figures  of  speech  we  should 
draw  conclusions  as  to  religious  history  with  great  caution.  Sometimes  what  we 
should  call  populär  superstition  presents  itself.     But  often  it  is  only  a  question  of 


EZEKIEL  291 

Ezek.  viii.  14,  see  p.  98,  i. 

Ezek.  viii,  16  f. :  Sun-worship  practised  by  twenty  men/  who 
turn  towards  the  east,  in  the  inner  court,  between  the  altar  of 
burnt  sacrifice  and  the  entrance  to  the  Temple.  Sun-worship 
was  famiHar  to  Canaan  in  all  ages.  In  the  Amarna  age  it 
would  have  been  stamped  with  special  Egyptian  features  (see 
[).  350,  i.).  The  Canaanite  sun-worship  proper  celebrated  the 
natural  dissension  l^etween  the  two  halves  of  the  cycle  (Over- 
world  and  Underuorld,  sunnner  aud  winter,  life  and  death, 
Baal-Moloch,  see  p.  349,  i.).^  Sun-worship  in  specially  Assyrian 
form  was  introduced  by  Aha/  and  Manasseh  as  a  natural  conse- 
quence  of  political  circunistances ;  2  Kings  xxiii.  5,  11,  see 
pp.  245  W. 

Theij  hold  the  brauch  to  their  nose:  this  means,  they  sniell 
the  branches  of  a  plant  which  was  current  as  the  plant  of 
life,  see  p.  215,  i. 

Ezek.  viii.  17  adds  to  this — there  were  also  heathen  cults 
practised  throughout  the  whole  land :  "  Surchj  the  sthil'  [qf 
tJieir  offerrng]  has  arisen  to  mij  ;?o.?f'";  conipare  with  this  vi.  13 
and  see  p.  267,  i. 

Ezek.  ix.  2  :  And  behold,  their  camc  slv  men  from  the  dhection 
of  the  Upper  gate,  ichich  Ueth  torcard  the  norih,  aud  every  man 
had  hls  iceapou  of  slaughter  in  lüs  haud ;  and  one  mau  in  the 
yn'/d-'it  ofthem,  elothed  in  a  liueu  garment  and  an  inlhorn  upou 
his  loius.  Seven  niessengers  of  God  sent  froni  the  north ! 
The  destruction  of  Nebuchadnezzar  came  from  the  north  (comp, 
xxvi.  7),  but  the  supernatural  spirits  of  destruction  also  dwell 

a  deep  religious  idea  presented  in  mythological  phraseology  ;  comp.  pp.  192,  i.  f. 
At  a  recent  consecration  of  a  large  evangelical  church  after  renovation,  the  minister 
Said  in  his  prayer  of  consecration:  "Lord,  return  novv  to  Thy  holy  dwelling- 
place,  and  bless  Thine  altar  anew,"  and  so  on.  The  Babylonian  might  have 
spoken  just  so  when  the  statue  of  the  god  was  brought  Imck.  And  that  minister 
certainly  did  not  intend  to  say  anything  Babylonian.  Our  pulpit  language  is  füll 
üf  mythological  turns  of  expression.  Every  ceremonious  sjjeech  is  "  mylhological." 
Old  Homer  spoke  mythically  of  the  meaning  of  Logos,  the  Word. 

'  Not  twenty-five,  the  Sept.  gives  it  correctly  as  twenty  ;  that  is  the  Babylonian 
number  by  which  the  Sun-god  is  designated. 

-  The  cycle  being  founded  upon  the  equahsation  of  solar  and  lunar  cycles,  when 
sun-worship  is  predominant  the  moon  is  still  of  importance.  And,  as  the  myth  is 
in  reference  to  the  cycle  of  nature,  it  may  at  any  time  set  Tammuz  or  Tamniuz- 
Ishtar  in  the  changed  relationship,  in  place  of  the  sun. 


292 


GLOSSES   ON   THE    PROPHETS 


in  the  north. ^  Each  of  the  six  bears  a  haninier  to  hew  in 
pieces.  The  one  in  the  midst,  in  the  Hnen  garment  of  the 
priest,-  has  an  inkhorn  at  his  girdle,  hke  the  scribe  in  the 
ancient^and  in  the  modern  East.  He  is  sent  with  his  Stylus 
to  mark  the  righteous  with  the  letter  tan  in  token  of  ex- 
em))tion,  before  the  destruction  of  the  godless.  It  is  treating 
of  a  stigma,  hke  in  Rev.  xiii.  16.  What  was  the  appearance 
of  the  mark  ';  Hieronvnuis  says  that  the  last  letter  of  the 
Samaritan  aiphabet  resembled  a  cross.     Upon  ancient  Samaritan 


.-?;^Fii 


KlG.  202. — Ancient  Babylonian  seal  cylinder.     Brit.  Museum. 
Wax  Impression  in  the  author's  possession. 

stonc  inscriptions  and  lipon  the  Mesha  stone  disciissed  pp.  239  ff. 
the  tan,  is  written  like  an  oblique  cross  ;  compare  the  ancient  Greek 
X,  the  Greek  T.  The  sign  of  Yahveh,  therefore,  is  a  recumbent 
cross."*  According  to  Job  xxxi.  35,  the  same  sign  served  as 
attestation  of  a  document  for  those  unable  to  write.'     Amongst 

'  See  upon  Job  xxxvii.  22,  p.  257. 

^  I  Sam.  ii.  18,  the  boy  SamueFs  garment,  and  xxii.  18,  the  linen  ephod  as 
mark  of  the  priesthood  of  the  eighty-five  men.  The  Babylonian  priest's  garment 
is  of  linen  (V.  R.  51,  47b). 

•''  In  a  hymn  upon  Gilgamesh  (?  A'.B.,  vi.  268  f.),  it  speaks  of  inkhorn  and  pen 
carried  in  the  girdle  {ri/as  kabli). 

^  The  mythological  meaning  of  the  various  signs  of  the  cross  in  the  heathen 
East  needs  special  investigation.  A  connection  with  the  Christian  cross  can  only 
exist  in  so  far  as  the  invenlion  of  the  punishment  of  crucifixion  has  mythological 
connections,  comp.  B.N.7'.,  20  ff. 

•''  We  consider  this  also  to  be  religious  ;  the  illiterate  makes  the  sign  of  Yahveh. 
This  is  proved  by  other  Uriental  customs.  The  religious  representations  upon  the 
Babylonian  seal  cylinders  show  that  the  seal  had  the  binding  power  of  an  oath. 


EZEKIEL  293 

the  Babvlonians  as  amongst  the  Elamites  the  cross  appears  to 
have  served  as  sign  of  an  end  on  documents.  See  Hilprecht, 
Babyl  Inscr.,  ii.,  PI.  59,  of  the  copy  of  a  fablet  of  the 
Hammurabi  djnasty  (No.  I.);  Homniel,  Aufs,  und  Abh.,m.  474, 
upon  an  Elamite  boundarv  stone  (No.  II.).i  The  number  of  the 
divine  messengers— seven— naturally  points  to  Ancient-Oriental 
presentnients,  which,  however,  Ezekiel  could  not  have  first 
adopted  in  Babylonia. 

Seven   is  the  number  of  the  great  planetary  divinities ;    see 
p.  15,  i.     And   then  it  is  obvious  that  the  angel  with         .\ 
inkhorn  and  Stylus  should  suggest  the  figure  of  Nebo,^  ^i^ 
who,  as  writer  of  the  Book  of  Fate  (see  p.  138,  i.),  was        M 
represented  with  the  stylus.^^     Also  the  archangel  in     j^^  j 
the  Book  of  Enoch  described  as  celestial  scribe  (note 

jpl       that   the  later  Jewish  tradition   nunibers  seven    arch- 
e:  tl  angels),  who,  pre-eniinent  in  "  wisdoni,"  "  writes  all  the 

jjj       works  of  the  Lord,"  is  brought  into  this  connection  bv 
No.  IL   Gunkel,  doubtless  correctly,  with  Babylonian  presenta- 
tion  of  Nebo.* 

Ezek.  ix.  3  {miftan),  see  p.  ."10. 

Ezek.  xiv.  12  ff:  Faminc,  xcild  beash;  sicord,  pe-dilcucc. 
See  upon  the  judgments,  pp.  252,  i.,  102.  These  are  the 
judgments  which  preceded  the  Deluge  in  the  Babylonian 
epics.     As  in  the  records    of  the    Deluge,  so  also  in  Ezekiefs 

1  Compare  also  the  cross  (in  the  form  of  cur  cross  of  St  John)  as  a  neck  Orna- 
ment on  the  Stele  of  Shamshi-Adad  ;  further,  the  cross  in  brilliant  stone  in  the 
palace  of  Minos  at  Knossos,  from  the  seventeenth  Century  B.c.,  and  upon  seals 
in  Ohnefalsch-Richter,  Kypros,  Bibel  und  Homer,  i.,  fig.  73,  p.  67.  Hammel, 
G.G.G.,  100,  n.  I,  adds  some  valuable  material  to  the  hislory  of  the  sign  of 
the  cross  and  its  mythological  signification  (as  symbol  of  Saturn?). 

-  Gunkel,  "Der  Schreiberengel  Nabu  in  A.T.  und  im  Judentum,"  in  Airhiv 
für  ReligionsivissenscJiaft,  i.  pp.  294  ff. 

•"  The  Talmudic  New  Year's  festival  of  Babylonian  origin  on  Ist  Tishri  (instead 
of  I5th  Nisan),  when  Yahveh  opens  the  "  Book  of  the  Living"  and  decrees  the 
destinies  of  the  year,  agrees  with  this.     This  rosh  hashshanah  corresponds  to  the 
Babylonian  resh  shatti,  when  Nebo  writes  the  decrees.     Yox  detail   upon   this 
B.N.T.,  70  ff. 

^  Gunkel  elsewhere  thinks  that  the  Egyptian  Taut  may  have  had  something  to 
do  with  it  as  prototype,  but  Taut  is  =  Nebo;  also  here  it  is  not  a  question  of 
borrowing,  but  of  forms  of  common  conceptions. 


294 


GLOSSES   ON   THE    PROPHETS 


records  of  tht  judgment,  only  the  righteous  shall  be 
saved.^ 

Ezek.  xvi.  3,  see  pj).  336,  i.  ;  339,  i- 

Ezek.  xvi.  17  f :  Thoii  dicht  take  gold  and  s'dver  und  niode 
thec  Images  of  »len  ....  toveredst  them  in  tliij  garmcnts  .... 
and  set  off'erings  hefore  theni.     The    ::alme  ::ahar  are  probably 


Vic.  203.~-Divining  li\er  with  magic  lines  änd  oracles. 
Brit.  Museum  {Ciai.   7'cx/s,  vi.). 

ofreriiigs  in  phallic  form.'-     Eiivelopment  in  tht-  gmnient  bcloni;^ 
cvcrvwhere  to  the  ceienionies  of  phaUus  cult. 

E/ek.  xix.  4  :  "  Tlujj  led  h'un  Inj  n ose- rings  info  l^gijpt "" ;  xix.  9  : 
'^  And  f/ic/j  pnf  him  -icitli  Itooks  info  n  rage  and  hronght  liitn  in 
chiiins  to  the  hing  of  B(d)ijlonr  Com}),  fig.  4!2  and  fig.  ISO. 
The  Assyiian  kings  really  did  impvi.son  captive   kings  in  cages.^ 

'   Comp.  S.  Daiches,  Ezckicl  aiid  llie  Babyloniaii  Account  of  llu-  Dcliigc. 

-  H.  Glimme  in  the  Kath.  Liter.  Rundschau,  1904,  j).  347,  mentions  the 
corresponding  South  Arabian  votive  offering  s-l-i/i. 

^  S/Igai\  Assyrian  shigaru,  therefore  probably  to  be  read,  wilh  1'.  Haupt,  as 
shtgar. 


EZEKIEL  295 

At  the  eastern  gate  of  the  city  of  Nineveh  was  a  cage  for  this 
purpose.  Assurbanipal  records  {Atmais,  col.  8)  that  he  put 
dogs'  chains  upon  an  Arabian  king  and  forced  the  prisoners 
to  guard  the  cage  at  the  east  gate  of  the  city. 

Ezek.  xxi.  26 :  Divination  by  the  liver  is  met  with  aniongst 
the  Etruscans  as  well  as  amongst  Babylonians  ;  comp.  p.  169,  i. 
Fig.  203  shows  a  sheep's  liver  with  magic  divisions  and  engraven 
Oracles,  froni  Cun.  Texts,  vi. 

Ezek.  xxiii.  14  f. :  Men  portrayed  upoii  the  loall,  girded  with 
girdles  round  their  loin-s,  icHh  turhans  on  their  heads.  Babylonian 
wall  relief  pictures  are  Hoating  in  the  prophefs  mind. 

Ezek.  xxiii.  23 :  (I  will  bring  against  thee)  the  Peköd  and 
Sho'a  and  Ko'a.  The  Pekod  are  the  Pukudu  of  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions,  a  common  name  for  the  Aramaeans.  Sho'a  and 
Ko'a  may  be  explained  as  Suti  and  Kor  (Kir)  ;  see  Isa.  xxii.  5-7, 
where  we  find  the  Kir  together  with  the  Aramaeans. ^ 

Ezek.  xxiii.  24 :  /  icill  comm'it  the  judgment  unto  them,  and 
they  shall  judge  thee  according  to  their  judgments.  Compare 
the  conclusion  of  the  Hammurabi  Codex,  see  p.  35.  A 
written  document  is  thought  of,  according  to  which  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians  will  judge  in  the  judgment  between  Yahveh  and 
his  people. 

Ezek.  xxiii.  29  :  Thij  shanie  shall  be  uncovered.  This  picture 
is  taken  from  the  Oriental  custom  of  war  mentioned  pp.  277  f. 
upon  Isa.  xlvii.  2  f. 

Ezek.  xxiii.  40  ff.  :  An  erotic  feast,  exactly  as  is  described 
hundreds  of  times  in  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights,  with  united 
banquet  and  song.  To  the  present  day,  Ornaments  are  almost 
the  only  pleasure  of  women  in  the  East. 

Ezek.  xxvi.  20.  :  Picture  of  the  Underworld.  Tehom,  the 
primeval  flood  (see  p.  176,  i.,  and  comp.  xxxi.  15),  is  to  wash 
away  Tyre  out  of  "  the  land  of  the  living  "  into  She  ol,  to  those 
gone  down  into  the  pit,  to  the  people  of  old  time  ("giants  of 
old  time,"  Ezek.  xxxii.  27).  Eabani,  in  the  epic  of  Gilgamesh, 
describes  the  Underworld  as  the  dwelling-place  of  the  people  of 
old  time,  as  he  has  seen  them  in  a  dream  (j!).  Upon  the 
"  giants,"  see  p.  241,  i. 

1  Compare  also  article  Ivir  in  K.P.  Th.,  3id  ed. 


296  GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 

Ezek.  xxvii.  6  ff.  :  Upon  Kittim,  Elishah,  Zidon,  Lud,  Put, 
Tarshish,  Tubal,  Meshech,  Togarmah,  Javan,  Sheba,  and 
Ra'amah,  see  upon  Gen.  x.  Upon  Eden,  see  pp.  204,  i.  f.  ; 
upon  Haran,  see  p.  7 ;  upon  Medes,  see  pp.  277,  i.  f.  The 
wine  of  Heibon,  v.  18,  was  well  known  to  the  Ancient-East, 
The  Assyrian  wine-list,  H.  R.  44,  also  nientions  it,  and  the 
Bellino  cylinder  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  I.  R.  65,  names  Hilbununi 
as  one  of  the  lands  whence  the  king  obtained  wine.  Strabo, 
XV.  735,  relates  that  the  Persian  kings  drank  it  exclusively. 
Heibon  is  the  present  Halbün,  north-west  of  Damascus,^ 

Chilmad,  v.  23,  has  been  taken  by  G.  Smith  as  äquivalent  to  the 
present  Kalwadha,  near  Baghdad,  where  bronze  rings  have  been 
found  with  the  inscription  "  Palace  of  the  King  Hammurabi "  ;  see 
Delitzsch,  Paradies,  206.  Biit  the  explanation  is  not  correct.  It 
is  placed  together  with  Eden  and  Asshur.  Mez,  Harra/i,  33  f.,  con- 
jectures  that  it  is  to  be  read  Kol-madaj,  "all  Media,"  Winckler 
(in  a  written  communication)  reads  "i?o'?3  ;  that  is,  Kullimeri,  chief 
city  of  Lubdi  (p.  302,  i.). 

Ezek.  xxvii.  7,  see  p.  284,  i. 

Ezek.  xxvii.  30  f. :  The  gestures  of  mourning  amongst  the 
Hebrews  are  for  the  most  part  verv  nearly  related  to  those 
common  to  the  East,  and  specially  to  the  Babylonian.  The 
characteristie  Biblical  word  for  "'mourning"  is  like  the  Assyrian 
sapad.  The  sound  of  wailing  is  reprodueed  in  Hebrew  as  ho'i 
or  /«o,  see  Amos  v.  16 ;  in  Assyrian  as  ita  and  ä.  The  shaving 
of  the  hair,  bearing  reference  to  the  hair  of  the  head,  and  the 
beard  amongst  men,  comp.  Ezek.  v.  1,  is  in  Lev.  xix.  27  f., 
xxi.  5  f ,  Deut.  xiv.  1  ff.,  forbidden  as  being  a  heathen  custom. 
The  putting  on  of  the  sak  (Assyrian  shakku),-  the  rending 
of  the  garment  in  mourning  and  in  penance,  comp.  Jonali  iii. 
6  ff.  (probably  combined  with  cutting  the  breast),  is  related  to 
rending  of  the  garment,  which,  according  to  Joel  iii.  1,  signified 
metaphorically  the  inner  nioral  distraction.  The  ideograni  for 
"  rending  the  garment "  is  explained  in  Assyrian  by  "  over- 
whelming  affliction  "  and  "  foaming-over  fury.*"  Upon  cutting 
with  knives,  see  upon  1  Kings  xviii.  28.  Wailing  men  and 
wailing  women  are  named  in   2  Chron.  xxxv.  25,  comp.  Amos  v. 

'  See  Wetzstein,  Z.D.i\I.G.  xi.  490  f. 
'■^  Comp.  Winckler,  F.,  ii.  44. 


EZEKIEL 


16 ;  according  to  Jer.  xlviii.  36,  comp.  Mark  v.  38  (Jairus), 
"flute-playing''  was  an  accompaniment  to  the  mourning 
ceremonies.  Zech.  xii.  11-12  speaks  of  the  alternate  soiig 
between  the  inen  and  the  wonien,  comp.  Matt.  xi.  17.  It  is 
Said  about  the  burial  of  an 
Assyrian  king  that,  after  the 
mourning  assembly  the  music- 
master  with  his  singers  (femin- 
ine) would  make  music,  and 
another  passage  says :  "  the 
wives  wailed,  the  friends  re- 
plied"  (K  7856).^  3  Macc. 
vi.  32  also  nientions  songs  of 
lamentation. 

We  may  mention  two  other 
apocryphal  passages  in  this 
connection  which  illustrate  the 
noisy  Oriental  custom  of 
mourning,  and  which  at  the 
same  time  show  that  the  sechi- 
sion  of  the  women  in  the 
women''s  house  was  just  as 
much  a  custom  amongst  the 
Jews  in  the  post-exilic  period 
as  in  other  parts  of  the  East. 

2  Macc.  iii.  Ip  ff.  (when  the 
treasures  of  the  Temj^le  were 
in  danger):  "The  Avomen  ap- 
pear  clothed  in  mourning  gar- 
ments,  girded  under  the  breasts, 
in  crowds  in  the  streets.  The  niaidens,  who  otlierwise  da  not 
go  amongst  the  people,  ran,  some  to  the  gate,  some  to  the  walls ; 
some  peered  through  the  Windows."  3  Macc.  i.  18  ff.  :  "The 
maidens  who  were  sechided  in  the  dwellings,  together  with  the 
mothers,  rushed  out,  strewed  their  hair  with  ashes  and  dust^  and 
filled  the  streets  with  waihng  and  sighs.  Even  those  also  who 
had    quite    withdrawn  themselves    left   the    dwellings    erected    as 


FiCt.  204. — Statue  of  Gudea,  with  archi- 
tectural  plan  on  his  lap.  Telloh, 
p.  2S7,  n.   I. 


'  Comp.  Meissner  in  JVietur  Zei/schriß  für  die  Kunde  des  MorgenL.  xii.  59  ff.  ; 
and  "  Hölle  und  Paradies,"  A.O.,  i.  3,  2nd  ed.,  10  ff. 


298 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


annexes  and,  laying-  shame  aside^  ran  about  the  city  in  disorderly 
tashiun."  ^ 

Ezek.  xxviii.  äff.:/  am  u  god,  I  sit  in  the  seat  of  God  in  the 

heaii,  ofthe  seas.  The  rojal 
residence  in  Tyre  is  meant, 
but  the  proud  words  contain 
at  the  same  tinie  a  mytho- 
logical  alkision  to  Ea,  who 
is  enthroned  in  the  cosmic 
Eridu  in  the  oeeaii  ;  see  pp. 
105,  i.  f.  This  is  also  an 
argument  in  favour  of  the 
assumption  that  the  sayings 
of  Ezekiel,  which  speak  of 
the  garden  of  God,  refer  to  Eridu  ;  see  pp.  205,  i.  f  and  206,  i. 

L'j)on    Ezek.    xxviii.     13    f.    (Eden,     the    gai-den     ot     God),    see 
pp.  208,  i.  ;  213,  i. 

Ezek.  xxxi.  3  ff.  :  the  miraculous  cedar,  see  {)p.  210,  i.  ;  213,  i. 

Ezek.  xxxvi.  25  :  And 
I  H'ill  sjyrinlilc  cleaii 
tvater  upon  you,  that  yc 
maij  be  cleaii.  Reuiinis- 
cence  of  the  ciilt  of  Ea, 
fonii).  p.  217,  i.  Ezek. 
xxxviii.  1  ff.,  Gog  (Ma- 
gog),  see  p.  277,  i.  Ezek. 
xxxviii.  6,  see  ]).  275,  i. 


Fig.  205. — Architectural  plan  on  the 
lap  of  a  Statue  of  Gudea. 


Fig.  206. — Measuring  rod  on  the  lap  of  Gudea. 


Ezek.  40  ff.:  The 
prophet  sees  in  vision 
the  plan  of  the  new 
Temple.  Babylonian  literature  also  contains  siniilar  events. 
They  agree  with  the  Ancient-Oriental  principle  that  evei-y- 
thing  earthly  corresponds  to  the  heavenly  pattern  ;  comp.  pp. 
53,  i.  ff.  Ono  of  the  inscriptions  of  Gudea  (Cyl.  A)  relates  a 
dreani :  Gudea  sees  a  divine  figure,  at  whose  right  hand  sits 
the  divine  bird  Ini-Gig,  whilst  two  lions  crouch  to  right  and 
left;  comp.    1    Kings  x.   18  ff.     The  vision    coniniands  hini   to 


'  The  Position  of  woman  in  the  Israelite  East  shouid  not  be  judged  one-sidedly 
by  this  ;  compare  upon  this  p.  233. 


DANIEL  299 

build  a  house.  Heavenly  figures  approach  in  lightning  bring- 
ing  pen  and  tablet,  and  show  him  the  plan  of  the  building. 
Compare  the  statues  of  Gudea,  figs.  204  f.  Conipave  also 
p.  254,  i.  Upon  the  ark  according  to  heavenly  pattern,  see 
pp.  121,130,  n.  4. 

Ezek.  xlvii.  1  ff.  (Paradise  with  tree  oflife  and  ^vater  of  life)  see 
p.  216,  i.  ' 

Daniel.— This  prophetical  book  has  been  repeatedly  revised. 
The  elenients  in  their  original  form  belong  to  the  period  of 
the  Exile;!  the  Hebrew  canon  therefore  correctlj  places  the 
book  after  Ezekiel,  and  the  Sept.  before  Ezra.  The  subject 
of  the  prophecy  is  the  expectation  of  the  "  last  days,"  that  is, 
the  Golden  Age  for  Israel.  The  dawn  of  the  new  age  was 
foretold  with  the  forms  and  inmgery  of  the  Ancient-Oriental 
teaching.  The  present  form  shows  the  prophecy  transported 
into  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  served,  from  a 
contemporary  point  of  \ie\v,  to  show  that  the  age  of  the 
Mac-cabees  signified  the  dawn  of  the  deliverance  (upon  Judas 
Maccabaeus  as  Deliverer,  see  p.  164).  The  Apocalypse  in  the 
New  Testament  adopts  the  imagery  of  Daniel  in  the  visions 
which  foretell  the  deliverance  by  the  gloritied  Christ  in  the 
last  days. 

Dan.  i.  7 :  Belteshazzar,  DaniePs  .surname,  Babylonian 
Balätashu-uzur,  that  is,  "protect  his  life."-  Dan.  iv.  8  says 
the  name  was  given  "after  the  name  of  the  god  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar.''  This  arises  out  of  a  confusion  with  Belsazar,  that  is, 
Bel-shar-uzur,  "  Bei  (Merodach)  protect  the  king."  Shadrach 
is  possibly  a  mutilation  from  Marduk,^^  Abednego  from  Abed- 
nebo,  "servant  of  Nebo."  Mishael-Meshach  is  possibly  an 
artificial  addition  ;  it  is  very  probable  that  originally  Daniel 
was  included  in  the  number  three."* 

Dan.  i.  20,  comp.  ii.  2  :  Ashshäpim  agrees  with  the  Babylonian 
dshipu,  enchanter ;  comp,  a.sliap  or  ashep,  Dan.  ii.  10. 

Dan.    ii.    14:    Arioch,    "  Captain    of    the    bodyguard"    {rab 

'  See  Vyinckler,  F.,  ii.  435  ff.  :  A'.^.  7'.,  ßrd  ed.,  334. 

-  G.  Hoffmann,  Z. .•:/.,  ii.  237  :  Balat-sha(i)-uzur. 

"  Kohler,  Z.A.,\v.  150. 

*  See  VVinckler,  F.,  iii.  47. 


300  GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 

tabbahim),    is    certainlv    the    same    name    as    in    Gen.     xiv., 
Babylonian  •'  Eriaku.''" 

Dan.  iii.  5  (musical  instruments),  see  pp.  26 1  f.  ;  comp,  also  figs. 
163,  173,  184. 

Dan.  iv.  1  :  Nebuchadnezzar's  madness.  The  passage  pro- 
bably  belongs  to  the  features  which  may  originally  be  traced 
to  Nabonidus ;  comp.  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  p.  110.  He  was  held 
imprisoned  in  Tema  whilst  his  son  Belshazzar  led  the  army. 
It  may  be  imagined  that  the  Babylonians  would  wilHngly 
give  a  verv  drastic  description  of  the  melancholy  of  the  im- 
prisonment ;  comp.  Job  iii.  l-S  ff.  The  "  madness "'  is  meant 
to  describe  the  misery  of  the  prisoner.  Winckler,  in  O.L.Z., 
1898,  71,  draws  attention  to  K  7628:  "  What  is  my  trans- 
gression,  thus  [I  ask] ;  what  is  my  sin,  thus  [I  lament] ;  an 
ox  am  1?     I  eat  plants  ;  a  sheep  am  I,  [I  nibble]  grass." 

Dan.  iv.  6  ff'. :  The  tree  of  the  world.  This  passage  is 
emphasised  by  the  Gnostics.^ 

Dan.  iv.  27,  see  )).  313,  i. 

Dan.  V.  1 :  Belshazzar.  He  possibly  owes  his  bad  character 
to  a  confusion  with  Evil-Merodach.  Whilst  his  father  was 
held  prisoner  in  Tema,  he  was  at  the  head  of  affairs.  On 
the  inscriptions  of  Nabonidus  there  is  reproduced  a  prayer  by 
Nabonidus  to  the  moon-god,  in  which  the  father  prays  for 
Belshazzar,  his  first-born  :  "  Let  the  fear  of  thine  exalted  god- 
head  dwell  in  his  heart,  that  he  may  not  consent  to  sin,  \\ith 
fulness  of  life  shall  he  be  satisfied." 

Dan.  vi.  10:  The  direction  for  prayer  (Kibla)  was  towards 
Jerusalem.  It  was  the  same  in  the  first  period  of  Islam  ;  later, 
Mecca  gave  the  Kibla  there,  see  p.  288. 

Dan.  vii. :  As  in  Ezek.  i.,  the  astral  figures  of  the  four  "  ends 
of  the  World,"  or  the  corresponding  constellations  of  the 
quarters,  may  be  considered  for  ex})lanation  of  the  four 
beasts.  Much  is  still  very  obscure  here.  If  in  regard  to  the 
"  man  "  an  astral  prototype  is  in  question,  it  could  only  have  been 
Nebo,  not  Marduk  (contrary  to  Zimmern,  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed.,  392). 
lipon  "  son  of  man,"  ;:er  amelnti,  see  pp.  9,  i.  ;  89,  i. ;  183,  i. 

'  See  Müller,  Gescliichte  der  Kosmologie  in  der  griechischen  Kirche,  p.  291. 


DANIEL  301 

Dan.  vii.  9  ff.  :  Rev.  iv.  2  ff.,  v.  ]  ff.,  is  closely  related  to 
this  Vision.  In  the  midst  of  the  heavenly  Council,  God  ("  the 
ancient  of  days")  is  enthroned.^  The  books  are  opened,  judg- 
ment  is  given,  and  the  doom  of  the  world  is  decreed.  The 
opened  books  correspond  to  the  book  with  seven  seals,  which  is 
opened  by  the  apviov  in  Revelations.  In  the  apocalyptical  vision 
the  events  of  the  combat  and  victovy  of  the  upvlov  ("Lamb") 
over  the  Dragon  is  in  the  background.  The  cicatrised  wounds 
point  to  victory.  As  reward  the  apviov  recei\es  the  rulership 
over  final  destinies  (opening  the  book  with  the  seven  seals), 
and  praise  is  aAvarded  hini  (for  detail,  see  B.N.T.,  14  ff.).  The 
sanie  Situation  lies  before  us  here.  And  here  there  is  frag- 
mentary  reference  to  the  combat  itself.  In  Dan.  vii.  11  ff, 
the  combat  takes  place.  The  characteristic  feature  is  emphas- 
ised  that,  before  the  fight  begins,  the  beast  speaks  "  imperious 
\\ords."2  The  beast  is  killed.  Dan.  vii.  13,  the  victor  makes 
his  triumphant  appearance."  The  Son  of  man  ^  with  the  clouds 
of  heaven.'  He  is  brought  before  the  enthroned  One,  and 
receives  the  governorship  of  the  world ;  nn'ght,  honour,  and 
dominion  are  given  him,  and  all  people  and  nations  shall  serve 
him  ;  his  kingdom  shall  never  be  destroved. 

Dan.  viii. :  Characterisation  of  the  lands  by  a  cycle  of  beasts  : 
the  ram  corresponds  to  Persia  ;  the  ibex  (goat)  to  Syria,  because 
Alexander  is  not  represented  as  King  of  "Greece"  bat  of  Syria 
(which  is  the  land  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  regard  to 
Judah).  Like  Eastern  Asia,  the  East  proper  recognises  a 
corresponding  division   of  the   earth  into  twelve  pai^ts,  which 

^  The  same  idea  lies  at  the  root  of  tlie  name  which,  mutatis  mutandis,  denoted 
Saturn  (Kronos),  the  god  of  time,  as  siiiiimiis  ciciis  (upon  Kronos  as  an  old  man,  see 
Chwolsohn,  Ssabier,  ii.  275  ff.).  Also  Senis  of  the  Carthaginians  corresponds  to 
this  idea  ;  see  Munter,  Religion  der  Karthager,  p.  9.  The  ancients  knew  the 
cosmic  astral  meaning  of  the  vision  ;  and  the  astrolos,^ers  had  a  great  iiking  for 
representing  the  heavenly  aged  figure  with  scales  in  his  right  hand  and  the  Book 
of  Fate  in  his  left. 

-  Like  Tiamat  against  Marduk  ;  see  p.   148,  i. ,  and  comp.  Rev.  xiii.  5  f. 

^  The  key  to  comprehension  lies  in  a  knowledge  of  this  connection.  Up  to  the 
present  it  had  been  overlooked. 

^  "Like  unto  a  son  of  man"  rests  upon  laier  defective  understanding  of  the 
redeemer  terminus,  see  p.  104,  i.     Likewise  in  Rev.  xiv.  14. 

■■'  A  feebler  e,\pression  forstorm  phenomena?  see  p.  152,1.  (reverse  ofthe  Lahbu 
text).     Matt.  xxiv.  30,  xxvi.  64  should  then  be  read  the  same  way. 


302  GLOSSES   ON    THE    PROPHETS 

correspond   tu  the  signs    of   tlie    zodiac.     This  is  discussed  in 
detail  p.  56,  i. 

Dan.  ix.  24  f.,  see  p.  243,  i. 

Ho.sea  and  Arnos. — That  we  have  no  written  prophecies 
froni  the  ancient  periods  i.s  no  proof  that  no  written  pro- 
phecies existed ;  see  })revioii.slv  }).  192,  n.  iJ.  2  Chron.  xxi. 
12  rec'ord.s  a  letter  f'roni  Ehjah.  Since  he  de.sired  to  influence 
at  a  distance  (Dauia.scus)  he  re.soi'ted  to  written  utterances, 
as  Jeremiali  did  later,  wjio  wrote  to  Babylon.  Written  notes 
would  alwavs  have  had  sonie  definite  pui'pose.  Fornierly  also 
thev  niav  have  been  in  existence.  As  re^-ards  the  reliijious 
ideal,  these  two  prophets  su[)plcnient  eaoh  other.  The  justice 
of  the  judgo  (Arnos),  the  niercy  of  the  loving  Yahveh  (Hosea), 
form  the  two  sides  of  the  Mosaic  conception  of  the  divinity; 
see  p.  105,  and  lipon  Isa.  vi.  pp.  266  ff.  Anios  was  not  the 
flrst  to  discover  the  justice,  nor  Hosta  the  first  to  discovcr  the 
love,  of  God. 

Hos.  i.  2  :  Wife  of  whoredoni  and  cliildren  of  whoredoni  as 
starting-])oint  of  tlie  ))ropheoy  (»f  tlie  future  deliveranoe.  We  liavc 
here  a  very  reniavkable  motif  of  the  ex])ectation  of  deliverance, 
which  belono-s  to  tlit-  splu-re  of  tlie  niotifs  of  the  extraordinary, 
niysterious  birtb  of  the  DeHverer.  It  is  on  the  sanie  bnes  as  the 
enijiliasis  ou  fioiu-es  like  Tainar  and  IJaliab  in  the  genealogy  of 
Jesus;  see  ))]).  l.')8,  n.  I.  The  antitlieses  alliide  to  it.  The  Jewish 
Tholedotli  of  Jesus,  whicli  re))resent  Jesus  as  a  earieature  of  the 
Messiah  and  as  son  of  a  harlot,  kuow  the  motif  and  use  it  for  tbeir 
travesty. 

Hos.  iii.  4:  Israel  sliall  rcnui'ni  long  ic'ithout  tcraphim. 
What  is  the  nieaiiiug  of  the  teraphim  here  (see  j).  öG)  '^  Is 
the  loss  of  the  teraphim  actually  made  equivalent  to  the  loss 
of  nationality  ';  Or  is  it  satire  r  Upon  ej)hod,  see  B.N.T.,  iii., 
and  comp.  j).  177,  i. 

Hos.  V.  13:  King  Jarcl)  should  read  "King  of  Jareb." 
Possibly  an   Arabian  district :  comp.  pp.  289,  i..  n.  1  ;  '302,  i. 

Hos.  X.  14r  is  a  gloss.  Shalman  may  possibly  be  the 
Salamians  (see  K.A.T.,  3rd  ed..  152).  Schrader's  explanation, 
K.A.T.,  2nd  ed.,  440  f.  whicii  suggests  an  abbreviation  of 
Shalmancser,  is  impossible. 

Hos.  xii.  3,  see  p.  51,  n.  3.     Hos.  .kü.  12  f.,  see  Deut,  xxxii.  17. 


HOSEA— AMOS  303 

Hos.  xiii.  14 :  Where  are  tliy  plagues,  O  Deatli  ,•  xchere  are 
thy  terrors,  0  Undericorhl  ?  All  demons  and  plagues  coine 
out  of  the  Ancient-Oriental  world  of  the  dead,  the  place  of 
Nergal  and  Namtar,  the  god  of  pestilence.  The  "  Journey  to 
Hell  of  Ishtar"  and  the  myth  of  Erishkigal  give  vivid 
descriptions  of  this  kingdom  of  terror. 

Joe]  i.  S  piit  on  ,sr//-,see  p.  296.  Joe!  ii.  ^?,,  rending  the  gavment, 
see  p.  296. 

According  to  Anios  i.  1,  he  was  a  nolyed  (comp.  vii.  14). 
In  the  H.C.  nfdidu  is  the  herdsman  in  antithesis  to  rew 
(Hebren-  ro'ds),  the  owner  of  herds.  Is  it  the  reverse  in 
Hebrew?  According  to  2  Kings  iii.  4,  Mesha,  king  of 
Moab,  was  a  ?ioJf:ed.  Arnos  was  not,  in  any  case,  a  Bedouin 
shepherd. 

Arnos  V.  26 :  Anios  speaks  of  astral  idol-worship  durino-  the 
wandering  in  the  desert,  and  follows  here  the  same  tradition 
which  is  apparent  in  Acts  vii.  42  f.  Ve  liave  hörne  Siccnfh, 
your  hing,  and  Ch'mn  (Kaivan,  Assyrian  Kainianu)  t/o?«-  sehvi. 
The  first  is  pevhaps  the  Babylonian  Nebo,  the  other  the  Canaanite 
Saturn,  Babylonian  Jupiter-Marduk.^  The  reference  is  to  the 
two  stars  which  represent  the  two  halves  of  the  cycle  (Tammuz 
in  the  Underworld  and  Upperworld). 

Arnos  vi.  2  :  Calneh,  not  the  Calneh  of  Gen.  x.  10 :  Kullani 
of  the  cuneiform  writings,  situated  in  North  Syria. 

vi.  14  :  "  Froni  Hamath  unto  the  nahal  Muzri  "  ;  comp.  1  Kin^s 
viii.  65. 

Amos  ix.  7:  The  Philistines  from  Caphtor,  Aramwans  from 
Kirr  As  Yahveh  controlled  the  fate  of  Israel,  so  also  he  did 
that  of  other  nations.  He  led  the  Philistines  out  of  Caphtor  and 
the  Aramseans  (the  Syrians  of  Damascus)  out  of  Kir.  The 
Philistines  (Pilasata)  are  the  remnant  of  a  seafaring  people.^ 
The  gloss  to  Gen.  x.  14  probably  arises  from  this  passage. 
Kir  is  not  the  district  of  the  river  Kyros,  that  tributarv 
of    the    Caspian    Sea    which,    to    the     present    day,    like    the 

^  Upon  the  confiision,  see  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  i8S. 

-  See  pp.  300,  i. 

"  A.O.,  ii.  4,  pp.  13  f.,  vii.  2,  p.  15. 


304 


GLOSSES   OiN   THE    PROPHETS 


surroundin^"   district,   is    called    Kur.     Some   niodeni    students 

think  thus,   following   J,  D.  Michaelis. 

But  the  Assyrian  empire  never  reached 

so  far.     Also  it  is  not  to  be  found  in 

Media,  as  Schradev  thinks,  nor  in  South 

Babylonia,  as  Halevy  holds.     It  is  the 

land   of  the    Kares   (instead   of  Kir,  it 

should  read  Kor),  in  the  Piain   of  Yat- 

FiG.  207.— Gern,  with  the   buri,  between  the  Tigris  and  the  hills, 

■     '   '  the  boundarv  land  of  Elam.     Winckler 

has  (leHned  the  right  place  in  Alttest.  Unters.,  1892,  178  f.,  and 

in  Altoriental.  Forschungen,  ii.  253  ff'.,  378.     Kir  was  inhabited 


Fig.  208. — Conquest  of  a  city  by  Assurbanipal.     Relief  from 
Nineveh  (Kouyunjik).     Palace  of  Sennacheiib. 

by  Arama^an  tribes ;  see  Isa.  xxii.  5  ff',  and  Ezek.  xxiii.  23. 
According  to  2  Kings  xvi.  9,  in  the  year  732  Aramaeans  (of 
Daniascus)  were  carried  away  to  Kir  by  Tiglath-Pileser.  This 
niav  be  taken  as  historic,  although  the  passage  is  missing  in  the 


OBADIAH— JONAH 


805 


Sept.  From  this  fact  the  author  of  Anios  ix.  7  probably  drew 
the  conclusion  :  they  were  cavried  back  wheiice  they  came.  Kir 
was  their  original  home  (compare  perhaps  Isa.  xxxvii.  29) — the 
additioii  Arnos  i.  5  is  probably  a  gloss  out  of  2  Kings  xvi.  9. 
The  prophet  only  intended  to  say  :  the  tribes  (Aramaeans,  Gaza, 
Tyre,  Edom)  were  led 
into  captivity,  that  is, 
they  were  robbed  of  their 
national  existence. 

Obadiah  v.  20:  Sep- 
harad,  cuneiforni  Sap- 
arda,  is  not  the  Shaparda 
of  the  inscriptions  of 
Sargon,  which  designates 
a  province  in  Soiith-West 
Media,  but  it  is  the  usual 
nanie  for  Asia  Minor 
after  the  Persian  period  ; 
A'.J.T.,  3rd.  ed.,  301. 

Jonah. — The  mission 
to  Nineveh  rests  upon 
presuppositions  which 
correspond  to  the  reality 
of  the  intercoursebetween 
Israel  and  Assyria  at  the 
time  in  question,  see  p. 
213.  The  point  of  the  book  is  the  preaching  to  non-Israelites. 
Vahveh  is  the  God  of  all  nations.  The  mission  to  Nineveh  is  a 
consequence  of  what  is  said  in  Arnos  ix.  7.^  The  whole 
nmy  be  taken  as  a  didactic  poeni  with  a  historical  foundation 
(perhaps  an  important  mission  to  Nineveh  which  feil  in  with  the 
prophefs  story).  We  find  analogies  throughout  the  whole 
World  to  the  three  days''  sojourn  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  (Rabbi 
Abarbanel  explained  i.  6  to  ii.  10  to  be  a  dream).     The  coast 


Fig.  209. — Conquest  of  a  city.     Relief  from 
Nineveh  (Kouyunjik).     Palace  of  Sennacherib. 


'  Countess  Olga  zu  Eulenberg  has  foUowed  up  the  religious  idea  further,  and 
in  her  clever  work,  Von  Asdod  nach  Niniveh  (i.-iii.,  Leipzig,  Wigand),  she  has 
tried  to  bring  religious  reforms  in  Nineveh  into  connection  with  the  mission  of 
Jonah. 


VOL.     II. 


20 


^306 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


in  the  neighbourhood  of  Joppa  is  the  stage  of  mythical  dragon- 
tights    (for     example,    Andromeda's     rescue    by    Perseus ;    see 


Fig.  210.  —  Assj'rian  archers  and  spearmen  under  Sargon  besiege  a  fortress, 
Relief  from  Khorsabad  (Botta.  Mon.  de  Nin.,  ii.  pl.  90). 

Baedeker,    Palestine).     Therefore    it  is  very  natural    in  regard 
to  Jonah's  fish  to  think  of  the  monster  of  chaos.^     The  "three 


Fig.  211. — Assyiian  military  emblem  from  Khorsabad.     (Botta.) 

days""  are  motif  of  deliverance  ;  they  correspond  to  the  rescue  of 
the  moon  after  three  days  (see  pp.  34,  i.  f.),'-     The  behaviour  of 

'  Gunkel,  Sc  köpf  11  Ui;  und  Chaos,  322  ;  Zimmern,  k'.A.  7".,  3rd  ed..  366,  388  f., 
508. 

-  An  Egyptian  Story  (Hommel.  Insel  der  Seligen,  pp.  18  f.)  shows  the  same 
motif  in   the   same   connection.     In    it   an   ambassador   suffers   shipwreck,    and 


MICAH— NAHUM  307 

the  sailors,  who  find  out  hy  lot  with  whom  the  gods  are  aiigry, 
gives  a  vivid  Illustration  of  the  populär  belief.^  Upon  land 
every  god  ruled  in  his  own  territory.  Upon  the  .sea  each  man 
called  upon  his  own  god.  It  is  evident  the  prayers  to  the  gods 
had  much  in  common  with  the  populär  prayers  to  the  saints. 

Jonah  i.  5  f.,  see  p.  350,  i.     Jonah  iii.  3,  iv.  11,  see  p.  298,  i. 

Mkah  i.  8  ff. :  Upon  customs  of  mourning,  in  particular 
songs  of  lamentation,  to  which  this  passage  refers,  see  p.  296. 
It  is  known  that  Micah  drew  his  name  at  the  end  like 
the  sign  of  a  painter.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  name,  an 
abbreviation  of  Michael  ("who  is  like  [God]"),  compare  the 
Assyrian   Mannu-ki-Ashur  ("who  is  like  Ashur"). 

Micah  iv.  11  :  The  daughter  of  Zion,  who  waits  upon  the 
Deliverer,  shall  be  exposed  (to  be  read  ci^nn) ;  her  enemies 
have  their  desire,  see  pp.  277  f. 

Micah  v,  5,  see  p.  296,  i. 

Nahiim. — Compare  the  illustrations  from  the  Oriental  material 
by  Billerbeck  and  A.  Jeremias,  "  Der  Untergang  Ninivehs  und 
die  Weissagungsschrift  des  Nahum  von  Elkosch,"  in  B.A.,  iii. 
87  ff'.  The  figs.  208-210  (comp,  also  pp.  186,  i.  f.)  illustrate 
scenes  from  a  siege;  figs.  211  and  212  represent  Assyrian 
military  badges. 

"passes  three  days  in  the  sea"  tili  a  serpent  "  took  him  in  her  mouth"and 
carried  him  off  to  her  lair.  The  same  motif  is  in  the  myth  of  the  "rescuer," 
Hercules,  who  sprang  to  the  rescue  of  the  daughter  of  Laomedon  in  the  mouth 
ot  Neptune's  hound,  fought  there  for  three  days,  and  then  came  forth  with  the 
loss  of  his  hair  (comp.  pp.  52,  172).  The  connection  with  the  myth  of  the 
Deliverer  is  particularly  clear  in  the  story  of  the  dragon  Ladon  who  swallowed 
the  phallus  of  Osiris  and  after  three  months  (winter-time  in  the  solar  cycle, 
corresponding  to  three  days  of  the  lunar  cycle)  spat  it  out  again,  whereupon  the 
new  üfe  arises.  The  glossator,  who  in  the  gospels  added  to  the  discourse  of 
Jesus,  where  He  designated  preaching  to  the  heathen  as  the  sign  of  the  prophet 
Jonah  (JNIatt.  xii.  40),  "  for  as  Jonah  was  three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  belly 
of  the  fish,  so  shall  the  son  of  man  be  three  days  in  the  earth,"  was,  in  his  own 
way,  right.  He  knew  the  motif  of  the  three  days  as  motif  of  the  expected 
Deliverer.  "After  three  days"  was  an  established  formula,  and  is  therefore 
used  in  regard  to  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  "after  three  days"  (Friday  evening 
tili  early  on  Sunday  only  agrees  with  "on  the  third  day,"),  see  B.Ä\  T.,  xxi.  43. 

'  Hardy,  Z.D.M.G.,  1896,  p.  153  (Marti,  Dodekapropheten,  p.  246),  points 
out  a  Buddhist  tale  in  which  a  vessel  where  a  disobedient  son  is  on  board  is 
forcibly  prevented  from  moving  onwards.  By  casting  lots  three  times  he  is 
shown  to  be  the  cause  of  the  misfortune,  and  is  put  out. 


308 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


Nahiini  ii.    4:     The  prophet  is  thinking  of  the  destructive 
instruments  of  war  as  shown  in  fig.  208  f. 

Xaluini  ii.  6  :    ••'  The  haltering-rain  is  eredcd  iliere,"  ^ee  fiu'.  188. 

Nahuni  ii.  8:    The  Queen  lanients  and  niourns  with  her  niaids 

during  the  .siege  as  in  Judges 
viii.  5  f.  The  maideufi  monrn 
as  doves.  It  is  said  in  a  frag- 
nient  ^  that  at  the  siege  of  Erech 
"the  maidens  coo  like  doves"; 
on  IV.  R.  26,  No.  8,  56^  a  sick 
man  laments  "  with  sighs  and 
weeping  like  a  dove."  They 
heat  upon  the'ir  hrcasts  ;  comp. 
Jos.,  Ani.^  xvi.  7,  5  ;  Luke  xviii. 
13,  xxiii.  n. 

Xaluini  ii.  1  .'5,  see  p.  297,  i. 
Xalium  iii.  5,  see  Tsa.  xlvii.  2. 

Nahum  iii.  7:  D^onDD,  "  ar- 
ranger  of  a  funeral  feast,"  or 
"  the  bringer  of  the  offering  of 
the  dead.""  Nineveh  is  dead 
unlaniented,  like  a  man  who 
has  no  relations  ;  see  Wildeboer, 
Z.A.W. ,  xxii.  381  f. 

Nahum  iii.  8 :  Art  tliou  bdter 

than  No-Amon  ?  -     The  passage 

is  in   reference  to  the  conqviest 
Fii-..  212. — Assyrian  niilitary  emblem    i         .       ,.u„    ;.     i        mm  •  c 

fromKhoLbad.    (Boua.)  by  Assurbanipal.      Iheruinsof 

the  temple  of  Anion  and  the 
pillars  of  Mennion  of  Anieno[)his  III.  are  amongst  the  most 
magnificent  ruins  of  anti([uity.  Like  Nineveh,  Thebes  was 
celebrated  for  its  library,  and  from  this  '^  hospital  of  the  soul " 
many  records  have  come  down  to  us. 

Nahum  iii.   12ff'. :    The  work  done  of  necessity  caused  by  the 

'  See  Izdnbar-Niiitrod,  p.  15. 

-  Upon  this  name  comp.  Jei.  xlvi.  25:   "I  will  destioy  Amon  of  No  " ;  that  is, 
Thebes. 


NAHUM— HABAKKUK  309 

assault  of  the  besiegers  is  meant.  Draw  tliee  xcater.  Boiling 
water  was  poured  upon  the  heads  of  the  besiegers. 

Nahum  iii.  1'3:  The  people  have  become  icoinen.  This  curse 
has  probably  another  meaning  in  the  treaty  with  Mati'ihi  of 
Arpad  (comp.  p.  49) :  "  If  he  disobey  these  laws,  he  shall 
become  a  whore,  his  people  shall  become  women,""  etc.  (J/.  V.A.G.^ 
1898,  234  f.).  Conipare  the  stele  of  Esarhaddon,  Berlin,  Rev. 
56  f.  :  May  Ishtar,  queen  of  strife  and  of  battle,  make  his  nian- 
hood  into  womanhood ;  comp.  K.B.,  vi.  1,  62,  9  f. 

The  gates  of  the  lancl  have  opened  wide.  The  outskirts  of 
Nineveh  are  meant  (comp.  Micah  v.  5 :  the  Assyrians  gather 
together  in  the  "  doors  of  the  land "" ;  compare  also  2  Kings 
iii.  21).  Fire  hath  devoured  thy  holts  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  bolts 
(Assyrian,  hargidla)  of  the  gate  of  the  city.  The  east  gate  was 
called  "  door  of  the  thronging  people." 

Nahum  iii.  l6,  see  }).  297,  i. 

Nahum  iii.  IT  ;  The  tlpsar  or  tapsar  are  the  scribes  of  the 
tablets,  cuneiform  tup-sar-ru.  They  wei-e  court  officials  and 
dignitaries. 

Habakhid.—Feisev,  M.  V.A.G.,  1903,  1  ft'.,  has  shown  that  it  is 
probable  that  Habakkuk  ^  knew  passages  of  Assyrian  literature 
and  (luoted  them.  Peiser  assumes  that  Habakkuk,  being  of 
royal  descent,  was  sent  to  Nineveh  in  his  youth  as  a  hostage, 
and  wrote  about  625,  shortly  before  the  first  assault  of  the 
Medes,  being  well  conversant  with  the  literature  in  the  library 
of  Assurbanipal.  In  ii.  2  he  sees  a  hint  of  an  Assyrian  fablet 
inscription  ;  ii.  9-11,  an  allusion  to  the  Babylonian  story  of  the 
Deluge;  ii.  14,  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  is  likened  to  the 
flood  of  the  sea.  We  might  take  this  to  be  an  allusion 
to  the  mythical  ocean  {apsü)  where  Ea,  the  god  of  wisdom, 
dwells  ;  see  pp.  105,  i. ;  191,  i. 

Hab.  iii.  7  (Ciishan),  see  j).  286,  i. 

Zephcmiah    i.     9 :     /     rcvV/    punish     those    that    mount    the 

1  ^[ambaküku,  an  Assyrian  outland  name  ;  theie  is  evidence  on  the  inscriptions 
of  a  name  Hambaku. 


310 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


miftan,^  that  ßll  the'tr  masicr-'i  Jiou.sc  icith  v'wlencc  and  deccit. 
The  miftan  is  the  pedestal  rising  in  steps  upoii  which  thc 
statue  of  the  god  in  the  adyton  (it  is  thiis  in  1  Sani.  v.  4, 
see  p.  176;  comp.  Ezek.  ix.  JJ),  or  the  king's  throne  in 
the  palace,  Stands.  The  adyton  in  the  Temple  and  the 
throne  in  the  palace  are  iniages  of  the  heavenly  sanctuary 
([)p.  öS^  i.  f.).  Therefore  it  rises  in  steps.  In  our  })assage  the 
liishest    diffnitaries    of  the    kinii    are   meant,  who    niount    the 


Fig.  213. — Relief  from  the  rock  of  Behistun. 
Prisoners  lecl  before  Darius. 


steps  of  the  throne;-'  comp.  p.  1<S9  upon  Solomon'.s  throne, 
1    Kings  X.   18  ft". 

Zccliarkih  i.  11  f.  is  written  in  the  gloomy  mood  which  lay 
ovcr  the  la.nd  after  the  miscarriage  of  the  great  uprising  bv 
the  eastern  aiid  northern  provinces  of  the  Persian  kingdom. 
Fis-  213slio\vs  a  frajTment  of  the  monument  of  Darius  on  the 
rock  of  Bcliistun  in  the  Plains  of  Choas,  which  celebrates  the 
victory  of  Darius. 

Zech.  i.  8  ff.  :  Four  different  coloured  pairs  of  horses  passover 
the  earth  (each  towards  a  cardinal  point). 

Zech.    ii.    1  :    Four    "  horns ""    which    have    destroyed    Israel, 

'  In  Kautsch  ;  "he  who  hops  over  the  threshold." 

'  Thus  vi'de  Winckler,  F.,  iii.  jSi  ff.,  one  of  the  numerous  "suiall  Services"  of 
Winckler  to  BibHcal  inlerprclation. 


ZECHARIAH— MALACHI  311 

and  opposed  to  them ;  ii.  3,  four  smiths  as  deliverers  of 
Israel.^ 

Zech.  vi.  1  ff. :  Four  chariots,  which  come  forth  froni  between 
the  two  mountains  (double-peaked  niountain  of  the  world,  see 
pp.  23,  i.  ff.),  drawn  by  four  pair  of  different  coloured  horses,  to 
the  four  cardinal  points.'- 

Zech.  iv.  10 :  The  seven  eyes  of  God  which  overlook  the 
whole  earth  (variant  of  the  seven  planets  as  indicators  of  the 
will  and  as  messengers  of  the  deity ;  comp.  Rev.  i.  4  with  v.  6). 
All  these  symbolic  pictures  correspond  to  the  Oriental  concep- 
tion,  and  to  the  expected  Deliverer  connected  with  it,  a.s 
described  above. 

Zech.  iii.  8  (Zemah).  see  p.  280. 

Zech.  iii.  9 :  Before  Joshua  lies  a  stone  with  seven  eyes,  upon 
which  God  will  engrave  an  inscription.  Babylonian  records 
often  bear  the  sign  of  the  seven  planets  (for  exaniple,  fig.  159). 
Some,  or  rather  all,  are  marked  with  rosettes.  The  planets  are 
considered  every  where  in  the  East  to  be  "  eyes ''  (compare,  for 
example,  p.  156).  Nork  and  others  have  aheady  therefore 
assumed  that  the  planets  are  meant  here. 

Zech.  vi.  6  appears  to  be  speaking  of  the  four  seasons.  In  the 
story  of  the  Persian  horse  of  the  world,  Gustasp,  the  allusion  to 
the  four  seasons  of  cycle  of  the  universe  is  shown  ;  Zarathustra 
bv  enchantment  brings  forth,  one  after  another,  the  legs  which 
have  been  drawn  into  the  body  by  sickness,  comp.  p.  164,  i. 

Zech.  xiv.  S  (living  water),  see  p.  21 6,  i. 

Malachi  i.  8,  1'3 :  Animals  without  blemish  are  due  to 
Yahveh  Sabaoth  in  sacritice.  The  Babylonian  ritual  makes  the 
same  demand  :  beasts  for  sacrifice  without  fault  {shalmu)  are  to 
be  brought,  comp.  p.  114. 

1  Called  by  the  Rabbis:  (i)  Kohen-zedek  (Malki-zedek,  Melchizedek) ; 
(2)  Elias  ;  (3)  Messiah  ben  David  ;  (4)  Messiah  ben  Joseph,  or  Messiah  Milchamah, 
comp.  Dalman,  Der  leidende  Messias,  7  ff. ;  and  Nathanael,  1903,  119,  note. 

-  Comp.  p.  64,  i.  The  four  horses  or  pairs  of  horses  in  the  New  Year  races  in 
Germany  have  the  same  latent  cosmic  meaning,  see  Kampf  ttm  Babel  tiiid  Bibel, 
4th  ed.,  pp.  47  f. 


:312 


GLOSSES   ON   THE   PROPHETS 


Mal.  iii.  16:  Before  Yahveh  a  writing  of  lemenibrance  is 
drawii  {sepJier  ::ikkarön).  This  i.s  the  Book  of  Fate,  of  life  (and 
of  death),  which  has  been  treated  pp.  51,  i.  f.,  and  exhaustivelv  in 
B.X.T.,  69  ff.  In  the  book  the  nanies  are  written  of  those 
who  fear  Yah\  eh  Sabaoth  and  who  honour  Hi.s  nanie. 


Fig.  214. — Combat  of  the  triad  against  the  monster  (woIf?). 
Seal  cylinder  acquired  in  Sniyrna.     In  the  authoi's  possession. 


APPENDIX 

Vol.  I 

P.  75,  n.  2.   Dindort;  i.  389  f.  : 

airo  l>iaßovarrapov  rovs  )(p6vovs 
T^S  Twi'  acrrepojv  KivijT^ui'i  ^aXSaioi 
t)KpLßr](Tav  Koi  OLTTO  )^aX8ai(ßV  oi  vrap' 
EXA.r;a"t  fxadrj/j.aTCKol  Xaßovre';  eVetS?), 
WS  o  'AAe^ai'Spo?  Kat  Br/pwcrcros 
<^acrtv  Ol  ra?  XaA.ati/<as  dp;!^atoA.oyt'as 
77€pt  €L\r](f)OTe?,  Na/JoFcicrapo?. 

P.  11 6,  fig.  37.  Description  and  dissertation  in  my  monograph 
on  "Schamash"  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mijlholos^ie. 

P.  208^  n.  4^  1.  4  from  bottoni.  This  is  the  Egyptian  relation- 
ship  (sun  =  lite);  in  Babylonian  the  tree  of  the  Moon  is  the  tree  of 
life,  see  Ezek.  xlvii.  1  fF.  (fruit  twelve  times  in  the  year). 

P.  279,  n.  2.  According  to  Weissbacli,  who  has  just  pubHshed  in 
the  Vorderasiatischen  Bibliothek  the  Achtemenid  inscriptions  and  at 
pp.  5  fl".  transcribes  and  translates  the  great  upper  inscription,  the 
iipper  row  of  figures  is  incorrectly  explained  by  Andreas. 
Weissbach  remarks  :  ''The  Senähauma-nergä  form  one  people  :  the 
first  figure  represents  the  Perstans^  then  foUow  the  Medes,  the 
Elamites,  the  Parthians,  etc. ;  exactly  in  the  same  order  as  the 
nations  are  nanied  in  the  great  upper  inscription." 

P.  314-.  We  have  füll  records  of  a  conquest  of  the  ''VV^estland  " 
by  the  North  Babylonian  kings  Sargon  (of  Agade)  and  Naramsin 
(about  2600).  Both  kings  ruled  from  Elam  to  the  Mediterranean, 
from  Armenia  (Gutium)  to  Arabia.  Besides  fragments  of  ancient 
inscrij)tions  we  have  e.vcerpts  in  the  library  of  Assurbanipal  about 
this  campaign  in  the  form  of  chronicles  of  augury  by  means  of 
liver,  under  guidance  of  which  it  is  pretended  a  great  campaign 
was  undertaken.  These  peculiar  traditions  illustrate  the  fact  that 
the  period  of  the  rule  of  Sargon  and  Naramsin  was  held  by  future 
times  as  the  Golden  Age  of  the  world. 

(1)   Legends  of  the  birth  of  Sargon  : 

They  give  evidence  of  three  campaigns  to  the  Westland 
313 


314  APPENDIX 

("three  times  have  I  conquered  the  sea").  This 
inscription  is  mentioned  in  our  section  on  stories  of  the 
birth  of  Moses. 

(2)  Fragments    of  an    inscription    of  the    time    of   Savgon    and 

Xaranasin  : 
"Thirtv-two    cities    on    the    sea    coast"     ave     conquered. 
This  must  refer  to  a  conquest  on  the   Mediterranean  by 
Sargon.     The  thirtytwo  cities  would  then  be  the  later 
Phüenician  and  Palestinean  and  Philistine  cities. 

(3)  Fragment  from  a  chronicle  : 

Sargon,  king  of  Akkad,  elevated  himself  with  the  ring  of 
Ishtar ;  he  had  no  foe  to  equal  him,  he  poured  out  bis 
terror  over  all  lands ;  he  passed  over  the  sea  in  the  east, 
in  eleven  years  he  conquered  the  land  of  the  West  to 
its  uttermost  end,  he  erected  his  statues  in  the  West,  he 
led  away  the  captives  to  the  coast  and  over  the  sea. 

(4)  Omhia  of  Sargon's  campaigns  : 

....  Sargon,  who  marched  upon  [Amujrru,  overthrew, 
conquered  the  four  ends  of  the  world. 

[.  .  .  .  Sargojn,  who  under  these  omens  [marched]  to 
Amurru  [overthrew  Amurru],  conquered  the  four  ends  of 
[the  World]. 

[.  .  .  .  Sargon,  who  under  these  auguries]  marched  [to] 
Amurru  ....  his  ....  he  slew,  his  nobles  [.  .  .  . 
out  of]  out  of  the  midst  he  dragged  him. 

....  Sargon  who  under  this  omen  [with  the  ring  of 
Ishtar]  elevated  himself,  had  no  foe  of  equal  birth,  his 
terror  over  the  [lands  poured  out  to  the  island]s  of  the 
Western  Sea.  After  three  years  in  the  West  [to  the 
uttermost]  conquered,  organised,  his  statues  in  the  West 
[erected],  their  prisoners  he  led  to  tlie  coasts  of  the  sea 
over  the  sea. 

The  Stele  of  victory  of  Naramsin,  Hg.  88,  p.  317,  shows  the 
king  as  "  Lord  of  the  World."  The  territory  to  be  con- 
quered is  symbolically  represented  as  the  Mountain  of 
the  World  (phallus)  ;  the  celestial  world — denoted  by 
sun,  moon,  and  Venus — is  onlooker. 

The  supreme  period  of  the  North  Babylonian  kingdom 
under  Sargon  and  Naramsin  was  followed  by  powerful 
South  Babylonian  dynasties.  Their  supremacy  also 
would  have  extended  over  the  '' Westland."  Gudea, 
the  mighty  patesi  of  Lagash  (about  2500),  records  in  his 
numerous  inscriptions  about  building  Operations  in 
Lagash,  that  he  made  use  of  materials  of  precious  woods 
and  stones  from  all  parts  of  Western  Asia  and  Phoenicia, 
from  the  mountains  of  Amanus,  and  from  Arabia  (Magan 
and  Meluha).  Gudea  records :  "  When  he  built  the  temple 
of  Nin-gir-su,   Nin-gir-su    his   lieloved   Lord  opened   the 


APPENDIX  315 

Avay  to  him  from  the  upper  sea  to  the  lower  sea.      In  the 

Amamis,  the  cedar  mountains,  with  cedar  trunks  whose 

height  was  60  ells,  with  cedar  trunks  whose  height  was 

.50  ells,  Avith  urkarinu  trunks  whose  height  was  25  ells 

did    he    make    ....    and    broiight    them    from    the 

mountains.   .   .   .   From  ümanu,  the  mountains  of  Menna, 

from    Rasalla,    the    mountains    of   Amurru,    he    brought 

great  blocks  of  stone  ;  he  worked  them  into  stele  and  he 

erected  them  in  the  fore-court  of  the  temple  of  Ninnu. 

From    Tidanu,  the    mountains    of   Amurru,  he    brought 

marble  in  blocks.   ..." 

P.  322.    The    inscription    reads  :     "  [Asjratu,    Bride     of    Heaven 

(of   Anu),    who    wields    sovereignty,    Mistress    of    Plenty    and    of 

Fruitfulness,  who  is  greatly  honoured  in  the  mountains"^  the  piti- 

ful  Lady  who  makes  her  word  gracious  Avith  her  husband  ( =  makes 

intercession)^  has   visibly   established   for  the   life  of  Hammurabi, 

king  of  Amurru,   Itur-ashdu  the  go\ernor  of  När  .   .  .   .,  the  son 

of   Suban  .   .   .   .  a    divine    protection    (lamassii)    for    her   beloved 

cities,  as  is  due  to  her  divinity."      Hammurabi's    third    successor 

Ammi-ditana  also  speaks  in  one  of  his  inscriptions  of  his  relations 

with  Amurru  :      "Ammi-ditana  the  mighty  king,  king  of  Babylon, 

king  of  Kish,  king  of  Sumer  and  Akkad,  king  Da-ga-mu  of  Amurru 

am  I."     The  meaning  of  the  word  da-ga-mu  is  still  unknown. 

P.  322.  The  supremacy  of  the  first  dynasty  of  Babylon,  of  which 
Hammurabi  was  the  mightiest  king,  indicates  the  ultimate  victory 
of  a  people  belonging  to  the  so-called  Canaanite  (or  better,  Amorite) 
migration,  to  which,  in  the  districts  of  Palestine.  the  Phoenicians 
and  Israelites,  together  with  the  related  Edomites,  Moabites,  and 
Annnonites  belong.  It  is  improbable  that  the  supremac}'  of 
Hammurabi's  dynasty  included  Palestine  also  as  the  dynasty  of 
Sargon  did.  The  Hittites  appear  already  at  that  time  to  have 
pressed  into  the  south.  The  discoveries  at  Boghazkoi  and  the 
Biblical  record  from  the  Abrahamic  period  which  names  the  Hittites 
together  with  the  Ammonites  give  evidence  of  this.  The  migration 
of  Abraham  would  in  that  case  have  passed  through  the  region  of 
Hammurabi's  power.  Further  detail  upon  this  is  given  in  dealino- 
with  the  history  of  Abraham.  The  intellectual  relationship  of  this 
ruling  people  with  the  most  ancient  strata  of  the  religious  Com- 
munity of  Israel  shows  itself  amongst  other  things  in  the  sphere  of 
legal  observances.  The  fundamental  laws  as  they  are  brought  into 
use  in  the  Hammurabi  Code  and  in  the  laws  of  Abraham  and  the 
legal  terminology  are  partly  identical  in  Babylonia  and  Israel. 
(Further  detail,  see  p.  34,  ii.). 

P.  323.  The  Hittites  and  the  "Westland."  The  Hatti  belong 
to  a  migration  which  had  already  made  its  influence  feit  in  the 
first  half  of  the  second  millennium  as  far  as  Palestine.  They  won 
a  supremacy  over  Babylon  for  a  time  at  the  end  of  the  first  dynasty. 
The  chronicle  already  mentioned,  which  contains  records  of  Saro^on, 


316  APPENDIX 

reaches  over  the  period  of  the  last  kings  of  the  first  dynasty.  "  In 
the  time  of  Samsu-ditana  [came]  the  I;^atti  into  Akkad."'  The 
oldest  recorded  evideuce  of  the  Hatti  is  in  the  letters  of  king 
Tushratta  of  Mitanni  to  Amenophis  III.  The  expeditions  to 
Boghazkoi  have  discovered  a  complete  archive  of  the  fortified 
city  of  Hatti,  in  Asia  Minor,  thvee  days'  jouvney  east  froni  Halys 
(fiom  which  therefore  the  tribe  takes  its  name).  The  language 
is  different  from  that  of  Mitanni.  The  records  belong  to  the 
Amarna  period  and  that  immediately  following.  One  group  of 
these  FJatti  is  certainly  Aryan  (the  first  recorded  event  of  the 
appearance  of  the  Indo-Gennanic  peoples,  comp.  VVinckler,  O.L.Z., 
1910,  pp.  289  ff).  The  history  of  the  Aryans  in  Asia  Minor,  however, 
possibly  reaches  much  further  back.  They  are  called  Harri  (the 
Biblical  Hivites,  who  were  held  to  be  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Palestine  ?).  Their  gods  include  amongst  others  Indra,  Mithra, 
Varuna,  and  Nashatianna. 

P.  327.  With  the  thirteenth  dynasty  Egyptian  monuments  in  the 
niines  of  Sinai  cease.  Under  the  fourteenth  dynasty  Egypt  feil 
ander  the  supremacy  of  the  Semitic  Hyksos.  Fig.  99  is  from  the 
period  about  1900,  and  represents  Asiatics  who  desire  to  settle  in 
Egypt. 

P.  329,  after  1.  3.  After  the  death  of  Thothmes  III.  the  rule  of 
Egyj)t  over  Syria  was  again  endangered  by  a  renewed  incursion 
of  the  yatti  under  Subilulumen  (Amenophis  IL,  Thothmes  IV.). 
Under  Amenophis  III.  and  IV.  besides  the  Hittites,  the  Habiri 
also,  nomads  of  the  Syrian  vassal  territories,  formed  a  danger. 
The  records  uf  Amarna,  treated  in  füll  pp.  335  f.,  and  the  records 
from  Boghazkoi  give  ws  further  detail  of  this  period.  Both  the 
archives  discovered  describe  partly  the  same  events.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  records  from  Teil  Hesy  (Lachish)  and  Ta'annek 
(pp.  343  f.),  which  in  a  wonderful  way  throw  light  on  the  same 
])eriod.  About  1350  Syria  w^as  under  the  rule  of  an  established 
Hittite  military  state.  Sethi  I.  and  Rameses  II.  only  partially  re- 
instated  Egyptian  rule  over  Syria. 

P.  333,1.  10  from  bottom  :  according  to  which  Merneptah  con- 
quered  and  punished  Syria,  which  meanwhile  had  revolted.  The 
mention  here  of  "  Israel  "  as  a  tribe  in  Syria  is  specially  iniportant. 
It  is  possible  that  this  is  evidence  of  the  wars  which  were  the  source 
of  the  original  text  of  the  "  Song  of  Deborah." 

P.  336,  last  line  of  page  :  They  sought  the  supjjort  of  Babylonia 
and  desired  to  free  themselves  from  their  Egyptian  overlords,  as 
in  701  from  their  Assyrian  masters. 

P.  337,  last  line  of  text :  In  the  theory  of  political  law  the 
supremacy  was  also  upheld  later.  There  are  hints  of  it  even  in 
the  time  of  Solomon.  Assyria,  heir  to  Babylonian  and  Hittite 
supremacy,  only  laid  claim  as  far  as  Carmel  tili  the  time  of 
Sargon. 

P.    3H,   at    end  of  n.    3.    Works  on   the  subject :   H.    Vincent, 


APPENDIX  317 

Canaan  d' apres  rexploration  rezente,  1907.  P.  Thomson,  Palästina 
und  seine  Kultur  im  ö  Jahrtausenden,  Leipzig,  Teubner^  1909.  H. 
Thiersch,  '' Die  neuen  Ausgrabunoen  in  VfiXiisiiiva.,'"  Archäologische 
Anzeiger  des  Kais,  deutsch,  archäologischen  Institutes,  1907. 

P.  348,  1.  9  tVom  bottom  :  The  excavations  of  SelHn  in  Jericho, 
1909  and  1910,  vide  Communications  of  the  Gemian  Orientgesell- 
schaft, 1910,  give  small  result  for  archaeology  in  Canaan.  Parts  of 
the  ancient  Canaanite  city  and  walls  have  been  opened  up.  The 
results  of  the  American  excavations  in  Sebastic,  site  of  ancient 
Samaria,  may  be  awaited  with  interest.  This  is  the  stronghold  of 
the  kings  of  Israel.  For  centuries,  while  Jerusalem  was  i)o\verless, 
Samaria  was  the  centre  of  the  political  life  of  Israel. 

Vol.   II 

P.  16,  1.  20  from  top:  in  order  to  denote  him  thus  as  type  of 
the  expected  Deliverer.  The  Dioscuri  myth,  corresponding  to  the 
Position  of  the  spring  sun  in  Gemini,  was  a  specially  favourite  one 
with  the  ancients  for  embellishing  histories.  We  repeatedly  find 
the  motifs  in  the  stories  of  Abraham.  Combined  with  it  we  find 
features  from  the  myths  of  Sin  and  Tammiiz.  They  are  both 
suitable  for  expressing  the  ideas  of  combat  and  victory,  of  rescue 
and  rulership  of  the  world. 

P.  21,  1.  7  from  top:  The  "  laughter "  of  Abraham  belongs  to 
the  motifs  of  the  New  Age.  Abraham  'Maughed,"  Gen.  vii.  17. 
Sarah  '^'laughed"  at  the  announcement  of  an  heir.  Gen.  xviii.  12, 
13,  15'^,  1.5'^  21,  xxi.  19.  Ceres  laughed  when  the  new  fruitfulness 
was  roughly  announced.  The  antithesis  is  the  motif  of  mourning 
(weeping  for  Tammuz),  for  example,  at  the  Oak  of  Mourning  in 
Bethel,  Gen.  xxxv.  8. 

P.  37,  1.  7  from  bottom:  "Morgengabe"  is  the  old  German  word 
for  the  present  which  the  bride  used  to  give  to  her  husband  the 
morning  after  the  wedding,  according  to  ancient  custom. 


INDEX 


A-a  (  =  Ai),  117. 

Aaron,   93,   iL  ;    loi,    ii.  ; 

143  ff.,  ii. 
Aaron's  staff,  143.  ii. 
Ab,  10,  ii. 

Abdihiba,  337  ;  28,  ii. 
Abimelech,    20"*,  ii.  ;    153, 

ii.  ;   167,  ii. 
Abimilki  of  Tyre,  350. 
Abraham,  i  ff.,  ii.  ;  94,  ii. 
Ab-ram,  Abram,  16  ff.,  ii. 
Abu  Habba,  117. 
Abu  Muhammed,  21 3''. 
Abu  Shahrein,  105. 
Abydenus,  245,  306  :   193, 

ii. 
Abydos,  92. 
Achan,  158,  ii. 
Adad,  see  Ramnian. 
Adadnirari  I.,  302. 
Adadnirari  IL,  194,  ii. 
Adadnirari  III.,  138,  215  : 

213,  ii. 
Adad-Ramman,  see   Ram- 

man. 
Adam,  78,  163'',  182,  205, 

233- 

Adapa,  10,  27^,  47,  53,  89, 
106,  178  ;  (legends  of), 
183,205,214,239;  149, 
II.;  257,  ii. 

Addu,  86,  124,  349. 

Aditi,  166. 

Ädityas,  166. 

Adonis,  see  Tammuz. 

Adonis  (little  gardens  of), 

97- 
Adonizedek,    27,    ii. ;    41, 

ii. 
Adumbla,  171. 
Adyton,  58,  60  ;  133,  ii. 
.HEgisthus,  95,  ii. 
/Eneas,  151-,  ii. 
Agamemnon's      daughter, 

48,  ii. 
Age  of  Taurus,  5,  73. 
Ages,  the,  69  ff.,  232. 


Agumkakrime,  154. 
Ah  (brother),  47,  ii, 
Ahab,    46-,  ii.  ;     190,    ii.  ; 

207,    ii. ;  208,    ii. ;    238, 

ii. 
Ahaz,  216,  ii. 
Ahriman  nnd  ^  162  f.,  230, 
Ahuramazda,  j       293. 
Aion,  157. 
Airu  (month),  42. 
Aja,  116. 
Akkad,   2,  53,  loi  f.,  123, 

292  ;  (  =  Agade),  295. 
Alashia,  see  Cyprus. 
Aldebaran,  25,  40. 
Alexander,   18,  294;   iSo, 

ii. 
Alexander  Polyhistor,  75, 

306. 
Alphabetic    writing    (He- 

brew),   196-,  ii. 
Altar  (of  incense),  124,  ii. ; 

(of    Diisares),    146,    ii.  ; 

165,  ii.  ;    188,  ii.  ;  245, 

ii. 
Amalthea,  94,  ii.  ;  253,  ii. 
Amarna  Letters,    139,   335 

ff.  ;  200,  ii, 
Ambaridi,  281. 
Amenophis  L,  328. 
Amenophis  111. ,  334. 
Amenophis    IV.    (Chuena- 

ten),  28,  ii.  ;  88,  ii. 
American    civilisation,    4, 

38',  38-. 
'Amman,  47,  ii. 
Ammiditana,  322. 
Ammizaduga,  253. 
Ammonites(Ammanu),  46, 

ii. 
'Amm  =  uncle  =  Moon-god, 

47,  ii. 
Amon,  159. 
Amon-Re,  350. 
Amorites,  1'. 
Arnos,   54 ;  61,    ii.  ;    192', 

ii.  ;  303,  ii. 
318 


Amosis,  87,  ii. 
Amphion,  258'. 
Amraph-el       (  =  Hammur- 

abi),  235.,  ii. 
Amshäspands,  43",  162. 
Amulet,  167,  ii. 
Amurri,  300. 
Amurru,     53,     321,     323, 

336. 
Amynos,  157. 
'Anamim,  299. 
Ancient  of  days,  301,  ii, 
Ancient-Oriental  teaching, 

I,    6   ff.,  46  f.,  52,  76, 

242. 
Androgynous,  123:  149,  ii.; 

178,  ii. 
Angels,     194^    241-,  261  ; 

53,    ii.  ;    140,    ii,  ;   267, 

ii.  ;  272,    ii.  ;   (of  Yah- 

veh),  165,  ii.  ;  (interced- 

ing).  257,  ii. 
Angelology,    194^;    53    f., 

ii. 
Annamelech,  244,  ii. 
I  Anointing,  179,  ii. 
Anos,  146. 
Anshar,  8,  103,  145,  147  f., 

162. 
.Vntares,  25,  40. 
Anthropomorphism,     100, 

268;   115,  ii.  ;  165,  ii.  ; 

168,  ii.  ;  261,  ii. 
Antigonos,  62. 
Antioch,  294. 
;  AntiochusL,  see  i\g.  126. 
Antiochus  Soter,  50''. 
Anüpodes,  128,  192. 
An-Tir-an-na,  14. 
i  Antithesis,   26,    148-',    162, 

167,  190,  207,  2oS^,  235, 

303  ;  (Chinese),  167;  31, 

I     ii- ;  34,  ii- ;  51  f-.  ii- ; 
I     137,  ii-  ;  154,  ii- ;  256, 

ii.  ;  (Horeb  and  Sinai), 
99,  ii.  ;  (Moses  and 
Aaron),   102,  ii. 


INDEX 


319 


Anu,  7,  9,  14,  16,  21,  30 

63,  85  ff.,  loi  f.,  141, 

147  f.,  1S3,  269. 
Anu  heaven,  16. 
Anu  point,  32,  37. 
Anunnaki,  143,  265. 
Aos,  8,  104,  146. 
Apamea,    arks    on    coins, 

255- 
Apason,  146. 
Aphrodite,  129. 
Apocalypse,  195  f. 
Apokatastasis,  164,  244. 
Apollonius,  30S. 
Apollodorus,  25S. 
Apophis,  159. 
Apopy  I.,  324. 
Apple,  209. 
Apsü  (ocean),  6 f.,  14,  63, 

104,  142,  146,  161,  191  : 

309  ii. 
Aqqi,  92  ff.,  ii. 
Aquarius,  13-", 27-';  77,  f.  ii.; 

285^  ii. 

Arabs    and     Arabia,     12, 

iio^''*,  199',  269,  2S6  f., 

288,  315;  20,  ii.  ;  44,  ii.  ; 

103,  ii. 
Arallü,  141  ;  258,  ii. 
Aramsean,    321  ;    83,     ii.  ; 

162-,  ii.  ;  196,   ii.  ;  295, 

ii.  ;  303,  ii. 
Ararat,  266,  276. 
Arbela,  123. 
Archangels  (seven),  43-. 
Arcturus,  260,  ii. 
Ariel,  see  Arallu,  258,  ii. 
Aries,  13,  75  f. 
Arion,  258^ 

Aristocracy,  primeval,  4,  ii. 
Aristophanes,  182^. 
Ark,  57,255,  263  f.;  91,  ii.; 

120  ff.,  ii.  ;  290,  ii. 
Arnion,  76,  78,  178,  196^; 

89,  ii.  ;  301,  ii. 
Arsacidse,  34,  119,  139. 
Aruru,  143,  232. 
Ascension,      263-,     267"  : 

(Elijah),  236,  ii. 
Asher  =  Pisces,  80,  ii. 
Ashera,  350  :   2,   ii.  ;    öi", 

ii,  ;    104,    ii.  ;    166,    ii.  ; 

282,  ii.  ;  2b8,  ii. 
Ashirta  =  Ashera,  350. 
Ashkenaz,  282  f. 
Ashkusa,  276,  2S3. 
Ashratu  (Ishtar),  322. 
Ashtarte,  see  Ishtar. 
Ashur,    154:    (■  =  Anshar), 

i8o3. 


Ashuruballit,  296. 

Ashvin,  166. 

Asmodeus,  162'- ;  63-,  ii. 

Ass,  147,  ii.  ;  172,  ii. 

Assores,  146. 

Assur,  297. 

Assurbanipal,  13,  18,  78, 
118,  138,  23S,  293,  298  ; 
115,  ii.  ;  (fig.  136),  141, 
ii.  ;  170,  ii.  ;  (fig.  161), 
222^  ii.  ;  229,  ii.  ;  (fig. 
175),  247-,  ii. 

Assurnazirpal,  78  ;  198,  ii.  ; 
208,  ii. 

Astral  gods,  12,  18,  25  ff., 

43>  270,   349 ;  54>  "•  ; 

77,  ii.  ;  271,  ii. 
Astral  myth,  29,  35  ff.,  76, 

96,   97',    146^    155,    270 

f .  ;     II,    ii.  ;     136-,    ii.  ; 

154  f.,  ii.  ;  169,  ii. 
Astrology,  astrological  Sys- 
tem,   49,    60    ff.,     181, 

307  ;  69,  ii. 
Astronomy,  30S ;  (Chinese), 

61. 
Astyages,  278. 
Ätar  (  =  fire),  164. 
Atonement,       see     Expia- 

tion. 
Atrahasis    (variant    Attar- 

hasis),  47,  186,  258,  262. 
Attar  (  =  Ishtar),   38^   %-]\ 

123,  128  ;  65,  ii.  ;  93,  ii. 
Attis,  84,  93\  128  ;  (resur- 

rection  of),  130  f. 
Atum,  160. 
Atunis,  130. 
Avaris,  86,  ii. 
Ave.-ta,   51-,   161    f.,  202^, 

207,  229,  235. 
Azazei,  140,  ii. 


Ba'al,  57,  3492 ;  ( =  Upper- 
world  Sun-god),  349, 
351  ;  248,  ii. 

Ba'alat  of  Byblos,  98. 

Ba'alat  of  Gebal,  38',  34S, 

350- 
Baalberith,  29,  ii. 
Babel,  292  ;  (tovver),  303  ff. 
Babylon,    i,   74,    76,   292  ; 

(destruction     of),     294  ; 

(decline  of),   346. 
Babylonia,  142  ff.,  296. 
Bacchus,  95,  ii. 
Baghdad,  288,  ii. 
Baitelos,  258^ 
Baker  and  butler,  60  ;  7 1 ,  ii. 


Balaam,  146  ff.,  ii. 

Baldur,  93,  132  f. 

Ban,  184,  ii. 

Banquet  (of  thegods),  168, 

ii. 
Barbercraft,  71-,  ii. 
Bargain,  281,  ii. 
Barnabas  and  Paul,  93,  ii. 
Bartatua  (Protothyes),  283. 
Bau,    96;   (  =  night),    157, 

176. 
Baucisand  Philemon,  41  ii. 
Bear,  97'. 
Beasts  (vision  of),  285,  ii.  ; 

(four),    300,    ii.  ;    (cycle 

of),  301,  ii. 
Bedouin,    324  f. ;    15,    ii.  ; 

33.  i'-  ;  39,  ii-  ;  68,  ii. 
Beelsamen,  157. 
Beersheba,  199''  ;  202,  ii. 
Behemoth,  176. 
Bei,  8  f.,  13  f.,  50,  59,  63, 

85  ff.,  95,  loi,  104,  135, 

141,  146  f.;  276.  ii. 
Bel-Harran,  113. 
Bel-Matati,  104. 
Bei  Nimeki,  191. 
Bei  Purusse,  72,  1 14. 
Belial,  193. 
Belit,  95. 
Benhadad,    19S,    ii.  ;    206, 

ii. 
Benjamin  (  =  Scorpio),  81, 

ii. 
Bergelmir  (  =  Noah),    171, 

258. 
Berossus,  Soff.,  61,  70  f., 

75,  83,  146- ;  193,  ii, 
Bestla,  171. 
Bethel  (=throne  of  God), 

190. 
Beth-Shemesh,  248,  ii. 
Betylos,  see  Baitelos. 
Bibel  Jind  Babel,  79  ff. 
Bipartilion,  25,  63. 
Birs-Nimrud.  138,  306. 
Bit  Diakku  (city),  278. 
Bit  JNIummu,  7,  90. 
Bitumen  (in  building),  305. 
Blood  (sacrificial),  104,  ii. 
Blood  rites,  147  ;  103,  ii. 
Blood  (revenge    for),    1 10, 

ii.  ;   167,  ii. 
Bluebeard,  63",    ii.  ;    182'', 

ii. 
Boar,  see  Motifs. 
Bod-Astarte,  55. 
Bohu,  174,  176. 
Bokchoris  (King),  76  ;  86, 

ii.  ;  89,  ii. 


320 


INDEX 


Book  of  Life  (Fate),  293, 

ii,  ;  301,  ii.  ;  312,  ii. 
Bor  (Springs),  26,   ii.  ;  65, 

ii.  ;  141,  ii. 
Boreas,  156. 
Borsippa,  17,  90,  102,    134 

f.,  138,  292. 
Boiindary  stones,  13. 
Bow,  269  f. 
Brahma,  166,  231. 
Brooding     of    the    Spirit, 

266. 
Buddha,  77. 
Bull     (of     Minos),     163'  ; 

( =delivering  god),  139, 

ii. 
Bundehesh,  164. 
Bunene,  1 16. 
Bur,  171. 
Buri,  171. 

Burning  bush,  99,  ii. 
Buru,  109'. 
Bybios,  129. 

Cain  (children  of),  23S. 
Cakes,  99  ;  63,  ii.  ;  279,  ii. 
Calah  ( -=  Kelah),  29g. 
Calendar,  39  ff.,   69,   73'', 

94^,  127,  202  ;  (Roman). 

65. 
Calendar-making,  40'. 
Calendar,  Persian,  43. 
Calneh,  295. 
Canaan,      13;      (  =  Kam), 

288  ;    (nations  of),  300  ; 

(colonisation  of),  152  f., 

ii. 
Canals,  3-. 
Candlestick     (seven 

branches),    135.    ii. 
Canon  of  Ptolemy,  193,  ii. 
Carmel,  Mount,  195,  ii. 
Castor  and  Polkix,  19,  ii. 
Cave=Underworld,      156, 

ii. 
Cedremus,  290. 
Celestial  ( =terrestrial),   8, 

49>  52,  55,  158,  199, 
216 ;  55,  ii.  ;  29S,  ii.  ; 
(bridge),  168,  270  ;  55^, 
ii.;  (gates),  16;  (ladder), 
53  ff.,  ii. ;  (ocean),  6,  8, 
175  ;  (vault),  50. 

Centre  of  gravity,  54. 

Ceres,  120. 

ChaldEeans,  18,  48,  292  f., 
307  ;  69,  ii.  ;  83,  ii  ;  94, 
ii.  ;  254,  ii. 

Chaos,  6,  8,  142,  144,  170, 
175  f. 


Chariot  (sun)  1 16' ;  248,  ii. ; 

(of  Yahveh),  2S4,  ii. 
Chedorlaoiner,  21  f.,  ii. 
Chemosh,  241,  ii. 
Cherubim,  212;  I24f. ,ii.  ; 

276,  ii. 
Chest(  =  ark),  127;  (rescue 

in),  271  ;  93  ff.,  ii. 
Cheta,  339. 
Child  sacrihce,  348. 
Children  of  Israel,  4  f.,  ii.  ; 

42,  ii. 
China,  4,  13,  18",  40',  4o'', 

47^  52,  56,  60,  64-,  69^, 

166  f.,   i82'',   231,  257  ; 

288,  ii.  ;  (Emperor),  59. 
Chinese,  166  f. 
Chislev  (month),  250,  ii. 
Choaspes,  213. 
Choser,  298. 
Christ,    76,   78,    100,    178, 

193'-;;  65,  ii.  ;  67,  ii. 
Christianily,  12,  ii. 
Chronicle,  Babylonian,  75. 
Chuenaten,  j-cr<?  Amenophis. 
Cimmerians,  276  f. 
Cipher,  63. 
Circumcision,  2,  ii. 
Clemens  Alexandrinus,  43-. 
Coast-lands,    278,    284  f.  ; 

195,  f-.    ii-  ;     205,    ii.  ; 

207,  ii ;   217,  ii. 
Coat  (Joseph's),  56,  ii. 
Colours,    64  f.,    HO,   121, 

129,  305 >   309;    50>  ii-  ; 

(red),  51,  ii.  ;   249,  ii.  ; 

(green),  iio,  309. 
Combat  (Marduk  and  Tia- 

mat),  14S  f.  ;  (with  Lab- 

bu),  152;  (dragon),  153; 

(Yahveh    and     dragon), 

192  ;  (JacoVs),  58,  ii. 
Concubine,  34  f.,  ii. 
Confusion     (of     tongues), 

^313- 

Copper,  76. 

Core,  see  Köre. 

Corners  of  the  world,  27, 

28  ff,  32. 
Correspondence,  8,  22,  26, 

30,  55,  57,  269,  349. 
Cosmogonies       (Chinese), 

52  ;  (non-Biblical),  142  ; 

(Northern),  170. 
Cosmos,    174;     (Biblical), 

189;  (Persian),  211. 
Courtesans,  122. 
Cow  (book  of),   II8^  158, 

254- 
Crealion,  6,   8  ;  (Babylon- 


ian), 142  ff. ;  (seven  tab- 
lets  of),  145  ff.;  (Phoeni- 
cian),  155  :  (Persian), 
162  ;  (Indian),  165  ; 
(Chinese),  166  ;  (Japan- 
ese), 167  ;  (Etruscan), 
168;  (Northern),  170 ; 
(Biblical  record  of),  174; 
(Vahvist),  187,  193  ; 
(Proverbs),  188;  (Job), 
189  ;  (Babylonian  epic 
of),  269 ;  (concluding 
words  upon),  196. 

Creator,  135. 

Crescent  moon,  269 ; 
(  =  sickle  svvord),  270; 
246,  ii. 

Crims,  276. 

Cross,  292  f.,  ii. 

Crucifixion,  93^ ;  278,  ii. 

Cuneiform,  338. 

Cup,  74,  ii. 

Cupbearer,  60. 

Cush,  2S5  f. 

Customs  (at  table),  33,  ii.  ; 
(legal),  34  f.,  ii.  ;  (adop- 
tion),  36,  ii.  ;  (marriage 
portion),  37,  ii. 

Cyaxares,  278. 

Cybele,  130. 

Cycle  (lunar),  87,  121, 
243  ;   (solar),  88. 

Cyprus  (Cypselos),  278. 

Cypselos,  95,  ii. 

Cyril  of  Alexandria,  294. 

Cyrus  (Kurash),  278,  293  : 
95,  ii.  ;  178,  ii.  ;  231  ii.  ; 
274,  ii. 

Dagon,  159,  ii.  :  175,  ii. 
Daiakku,  278. 
Damascius,     7,     90',    188, 

206,    295  ;    8,    ii.  ;    3i\ 

ii.  ;   192,  ii.  ;    197  {f.,  ii.  ; 

205,  ii. 
Damascus,  206  ;  8,  ii. ;  3iS 

ii, ;  192,  ii. ;  197,  ii. ;  205, 

ii. 
Daraavand,  164,  211. 
Damkina,  8,  63,  106. 
Dan  =  libra,  So,  ii. 
Daniel,  299,  ii. 
Darius(tombof),  278;  (list 

of  nations  oQ,  279,  293. 
Danke,  146. 
David,  179  ff.,  327'  ;  202, 

ii.  ;  237,    ii.  ;    262,    ii.  ; 

(  =  Tammuz),  180,  ii. 
Day  of  rest,  201. 
Death,  126. 


INDEX 


Death-realm,  139. 
Deborah,  163,  ii. 
Decalogue,   227  ;   107,  ii.  ; 

112-,  ii. 
Decani,  12. 
Decider  of  Fate,  134. 
Decimal  System,  242^ 
Dedan,  289. 
Deioces,  278. 
Deliverance,  78,   87,  235  ; 

126,  ii  ;  169,  ii,  ;  278  ii. ; 

(Persian),  163. 
Deluge,   52,  56,  70  f.,  132, 

227,  238;  (Persian),  163; 

(traditions   of),  245    ff.  ; 

(as    solar  -  lunar    myth), 

273- 
Demeter,  141^. 
Demiurgos,    22,    51,    106, 

135,  144,  146,  151,  168. 
Demons,  1 1 1,  164  ;  26,  ii. ; 

30,  ii.  ;  150,  ii.  ;  176  ff., 
ii. ;  1S8,  ii.(fig.  iS6);269, 
ii.  ;  272,  ii.  ;  303,  ii. 

Der    (Durilu),     102,     103, 

103I ;  245,  ii. 
Derceto,  95,  ii. 
Desert,  see  Wilderness. 
Deucalion,  255,  259. 
Dibarra,     104,     121  ;     (le- 

gends),  140. 
Dido-Elissa,  284. 
Dilbat,  18,  20. 
Dinah,    44,    ii.  ;    60,     ii.  ; 

63,  ii.  ;  (=Virgo),  82,  ii. 
Diodorus  Siculus,  18. 
Dionysus,  199'^,  272''. 
Dioscuri,   13,    73  ;   19,  ii.  ; 

31,  ii.  ;  51,  ii.  ;  60  ii.  ; 
78  f.,  ii. 

Divine  man,  10,  S9,  106. 

Doctrine  (Babylonian),  lO  ; 
(Ancient-Oriental),  172. 

Dodanim,  285. 

Dodel<aoros,  24,  56. 

Doorposts,  103,  ii. 

Dramatic  representations, 
see  Festivals. 

Dream  (Jacob's)  53,  ii.  ; 
(Joseph's),  64,  ii.  ;  (In- 
terpretation of),  69  f.,  ii. 

Dragon,  9,  iS  f.,  151^  152 

ff-  (fig.  59),  155,  176; 
146,  ii.  ;  154,  ii.  ;  182, 
ii  ;  262,  ii.  ;  2S2,  ii. 
Dragon  combat,  51,  78) 
91  (fig.  53  ff.),  146,  148, 
164,  192 f.,  195  ;  42,  ii.  ; 
60,  ii.  ;  90,  ii  ;  164,  ii.  ; 
182,  ii. 
VOL.   II. 


Dragon  month,  20. 
Dragon    (treading     upon), 

149  ;   1S3,   ii.  ;  262,    ii.  ; 

(figs.  47  and  53). 
Draupnir,  134 
Dung   =    Underworld,  7^, 

234;- 
Dungi,     105^,     296,     309  ; 

6,  ii. 
Dunpauddua,  18,  27. 
Durilu,  see  Der. 
Dusares,  128  ;  145  ii. 
Dwelling  of  Fate,  136. 


Ea,  8  ff.,  14,  31,  47  f.,  53, 
63,  85,  89,  loi,  104  ff., 
135,  13S,  146  f.,  154, 
253>  273  ;  160,  ii.  ;  298, 
ii. 

Eabani,  182,  185,  212,  232  ; 
29s,  ii. 

Eagle,  272. 

E-ana,  loi,  142  f. 

L-apsu,  105. 

Ears  of  corn,  169,  ii. 

Earth,  9. 

Earthly  image,  52. 

Ebal  and  Gerizim,  24  ;  29, 
ii.  ;  48,  ii.  ;  67,  ii.  ;  99, 
ii.  ;  147,  ii. 

Ebarra,  57. 

Ecbatana,  278  ;  249,  ii. 

Ecliptic,  12,  23. 

Ecstasy,  147,  ii. 

Edda,  17,  ii6\  133,  170, 
254-,  258,  270. 

Eden,  204. 

Edomites,  60  f.,  ii.  ;  (gods 
of),  61,  ii.  ;   1S7,  ii. 

Egg  of  World,  156,  167, 
177. 

Egypt,  4,  6\  12^,  13^  17^, 
31-,  4o\  53.  60,  66,  69I, 
69",  73",  92  f.,  ioo\  lOI, 
iiS",  158  ff.,  195,  210, 
21S,  254,  271^,286,  304-, 

307,  309>  324  ff,  333  ff; 

20,  ii.  ;  49,  ii.  ;  83  ff., 

ii.  ;  96,  ii.  ;  195,  ii.  ; 

204  f. ,  ii.  ;  204'',  ii. 
Egypt  =  Underworld,    195, 

210  ;    20,    ii.  ;    50-'',    ii.  ; 

56,  ii.  ;  64,  ii.  ;  65^  ii.  ; 

68   ff.,  ii.  ;  77,    ii.  ;  90, 

ii.  ;  117',    ii.  ;    126,  ii.  ; 

154,  ii. 
Ehud,  163,  ii. 
E-Kur,  104,  142. 
'El,  see  Ilu. 


Elam,  53. 

Elamites,  137,  301. 

Eiders,  290,  ii. 

Elephantine,  158. 

Eleutheros,  202,  ii. 

Elhanan,  183,  ii. 

Eliakim,  267',  ii. 

Eliezer,  31,  ii. 

Elijah,  68,  78,  241 ;  91 
ii.;  98,  ii.;  190,  ii. ;  231 
ii.  ;  234,  ii.;  302,  ii.  ■=-= 

Elisha,  78;  192,  ii.  ;  209 
ii.  ;   210°,    ii.  ;    212,  ii. 

234,  ii- 
Elishah  (place),  284. 
Ellassar,  119. 
El    Mugayyar    (fig.     120), 

I       7>  ii- 
El  Maqrisi,  17. 
Elohim,  13,  ii. 
Elohist,  194I  ;  2,  ii. 
'El   'olam,    13  f.,   ii.  ;    14'*, 

ii. 
Elul,  42. 
Elysium,  206. 
Emanations,  89. 
Enchanter,  299,  ii. 
En-ki,  104. 
Enmeduranki,    48,    51    f., 

83,  206,  239  f. 
Ennugi,  141. 
Enoch,  240  ;  27^,  ii. 
Enuma  elish,  6,  9,    21   f., 

31,  83,    102,  113,  134  f., 

i45>  197- 
Enzu,  108. 
Epagomense,   31",   65,   78, 

93,    94^,    III  ;    18,     ii.  ; 

42\    ii.  ;    67,    ii.  ;     155, 

ii.  ;   166,  ii.  ;   182,  ii. 
Ephod,  178;  137,  ii. ;  165^, 

ii. 
Ephraim    (Samaria),    216, 

ii. 
Epiphany,  131. 
Eponymcanon,  104^  ;  i/ö"*, 

ii.  ;   194,  ii.  ;  215,  ii. 
Equalisation    of    calendar, 

see  Calendar. 
Equinox,  34  ff.,  136. 
Erech  =  uruk,      lOl,      104, 

142  f.,  295. 
Eri-aku,  321. 
Erichthonius,  233'*. 
Eridanos,  105. 
Eridu,   89,    loi,    105,   135, 

137,    142    f.,    205,    214, 

216  ;  298,  ii. 
Erishkigal,  121,  139. 
Erythrasian,  48,  207. 

21 


322 


INDEX 


Esagila  (Marduk  temple), 

105,  135,  142,  294. 
Esarhaddon, 215, 2S3,  293 ; 

228,  ii. 
Esau  (  =  Underworld),  51, 

ii.   ;      (  =  Se'ir=Pan, 

Singer),  51,  ii. 
E-sharra,  150. 
Eshmunazar,  55. 
Esther,  251,  ii. 
Etana  myth,  59  ;  94^,  ii.  ; 

149,  ii.  ;  275,  ii. 
E-temen-an-ki,  136. 
Ethics,  Babylonian,  225  f.  ; 

109  ff.,  ii. 
Etruria,  16S  ff. 
Euphrates,  105. 
Euphratesian     civilisation, 

2  ff. 
Euridice,  121. 
E-ur-imin-an-ki,  138. 
Europe,  277. 
Eusebius,  4S. 
Evangelists,  28. 
Evemerus  (King),  294. 
Evening  star,    121,     123^, 

166;  168,  ii.  ;  270,  ii. 
Evil  spirit,  184,  ii. 
Execution,   159,    ii.  ;   (em- 

palement),  249,  ii. 
Exile,  278  ;  25,  ii.  ;  153I, 

ii.  ;    216,    ii.  ;    219,    ii.  ; 

231,   ii.  ;  269,   ii.  ;   283, 

ii. 
Exodus,  the,  83  ff.,  ii. 
Exorcism  =  shurpu,     loS, 

186,  214,  225  ;  104,  ii.  ; 

141,  ii. 
Expiation,    48,     ii.  ;    103, 

ii.  ;   113,  ii.  ;  116,  ii. 
Eyes  =  planets,  311,  ii. 
Ezekiel,  283,  ii. 
Ezida,  138. 

Fall,  221    ff.  ;  (results  of), 

233. 
Fasts,  68  f. 
Fate,  Decider  of,  134. 
Feasts  and  festivals — 
(calendar),    90  ff.,    96'', 

126  f.,   131. 
(Akitu),     91  ;     (Cybele 

Attis),  98. 
(of   Marduk),    95  ;    (re- 

surrection),  93',  96. 
(Purim),  251,  ii.  ;  (New 
Year),  251,  ii. 
Fiery  appearance,  32  f.,  ii. 
Fifty,  See  Numbers. 
Fig  tree,  209. 


Fire,  32,  140,  161  ;  33,  ii. 
Fire  and  brimstone,  42,  ii. 
Fire-flood,  28,  70 f.,  132  f., 

141I,  148-*,  163,  268,  271. 
Fire-God,  140. 
Fire-point,  161. 
Fire-realm,  23. 
Firmament,  52. 
Firmicus  Maternus,  98. 
First  Cause,  8,  146,  157. 
First  man,  182. 
Fish,  fish- man,  47"",  48,  76-, 

146^ ;  So,  ii.  ;  160,  ii. 
Five,  See  Numbers. 
Fixed  Star  Heaven,  49-. 
Flickering    fiame  =  north  - 

point,  99,  ii. 
Flood,  see  Deluge. 
Fohi,  77. 

Forty,  see  Numbers.  • 
Fountain   =    Underworld, 

220. 
Fravashi,  see  Persia. 
Freyr,  133. 
Frigg,  134- 
Funeral  feast,  see  Feasts. 


Gabriel,  285^,  ü. 

Gad  =  Sagittarius,  80,  ii. 

Gaga,  see  Gog. 

Gaia,  63. 

Galatians,  130. 

Gallu,  254-*,  ii. 

Ganymede,  241^. 

Garden,  204  ff.  ;  (of  God), 

213  ;  (in  the  sea),  213  ; 

(of  Adonis),  97. 
Gardener,  92,  ii. 
Garment,  148,  177  ;  53,  ii.  ; 

63-',  ii.  ;  66,  ii. ;  136,  ii.  ; 

190,  ii. ;  267,  ii. 
Gebal,  200,  ii. 
Gemini,    13,    37,    42,   43I, 

49-,  71  f. ,  78,  114,  292  ; 

19,  ii ;  78,  ii. 
Genea,  157. 

Generations,  Biblical,  242. 
Genii,  211,    236  ;    55^,    ii. , 

fig.  185  ;  284  f.,  ü. 
Genos,  157. 
Gerah,  19,  ii. 
Gerizim,  24. 
Germanic,    103,    132,    170, 

258,  269  ;  103,  ii.  ;   iio-*, 

ii.  ;  131-,  ii. 
Gezer,  342. 
Giants,  241. 
Gibeon,  156^. 
Gibil,  114. 


Gideon,  164,  ii. 
Gihon,  218. 
Gilgal,  155,  ii. 
Gilgamesh,  epic  of,  i  ^,  97, 

103,  116,  120,  206,  2I2f., 

215,  217,  220,  232,  247  ; 

265,     ii.  ;    (  =  Nimiod), 

290. 
Ginnungagap,  170  f. 
Gishzida,  126^ 
Gnosticism,    17,  23  ;    300, 

ii. 
Goat  (Underworld),  51,  ii. 
God-man,  10. 
God  of  the  universe,  136. 
Gog,  277,  282,  2S4. 
Gold    =    sun  -  metal,      76, 

214-*,    2322,    234-;    50, 

ii.  ;   15S,  ii.  ;  557,  ii. 
Gülden  Age,  77,  132,  163, 

231    f.,   233I;    148,    ii.  ; 

268,  ii.  ;  299,  ii. 
Golden  calf,  138,  ii.  ;  233, 

ii. 
Golden     tumours    (mice), 

176,  ii. 
Goliath,    82,    93-1,     327I  ; 

2i\   ii.  ;  1555,  ii.  ;  179, 

ii. ;   180,  ii. 
Gomer,  276,  2S2. 
Goshen,  75,  ii. 
Götterdämmerung,        133, 

270. 
Gozan,  243,  ii. 
Granaries,  71,  ii. 
Grave  of  gods,  92,  96,  121, 

130. 
Gveeks,  2S,   55,    12S,   130, 

175,  1S2,  192,  241,  254, 

258,278,285,312,  337I; 

55'\  ii.  ;  iii^,  ii. 
Green,  see  Colour. 
Grimnismal  Saga,  53,  ii, 
Guardian  of  World,  137. 
Gudea,    57    f.,    296,    309; 

6,  ii.  ;  (statue  of),  287^ 

ii.  ;  (dream  of),  29S,  ii. 
Gudi  (moimtain),  266. 
Gudud,  18,  27. 
Gugal,  22. 
Gur  =  Bau,  176^. 

Habakkuk,  309,  ii. 

Habiri,  399  ff. 

Hadad        Rimmon,        see 

Ramman. 
Hagar,  5,  ii.  ;  34,  ii. 
Hair,  272^  ii.  ;  (  =  sun  and 

moon     rays),      51,     ii,  ; 

172,  ii. 


INDEX 


323 


Half  moon,  iio. 
Hallelujah  (Hilal),  36,  37', 
93,    iio",    113  ;  14,  ii.  ; 
246,  ii. 
Harn,  2iiS. 
Haman,  39'. 

Hamath,     301  ;     197,    ii.  ; 
201,   ii.  ;    219,   ii.  ;    269, 
ii. 
Hammer     (double),     125; 

164,  ii.  ;  292,  ii. 

Hammurabi,    26,     57,    73 

f.,  134  ff.  ;  (as  Sun-god), 

221. 

Hammurabi  Code,  107,  ii.  ff. 

Hammurabi  dynasty,  73  f., 

102. 
Hand    (holding),    94,    fig. 

36  ;  232,  ii. 
Hand  (symbol),  iio'*. 
Hanikim,  24,  ii.  ;  27,  ii. 
Har-Magedon,  266,  ii. 
Har  mo'ed,  122,  ii.  ;  266, 

ii. 
Harmony(pre-established), 

46  ff.,  55  ff.;  259,  li. 
Harran  (Haran),  73"^,  102, 
113;  5,  ii.  ;  7,   ii.  ;    17, 
ii. 
Haruspex,  see  Etruria. 
Hathor,  89,  254. 
Hatti  (Khatti),  scf  Hittites. 
Haubas,  113". 
Havilah,  21 8,  2SS. 
Hazael,  210,  ii. 
Heaven,  9;  (of  Anu),  16  f., 

265,  270  f. 
Heavenly  food,  215. 
Heavenly  gifts,  215-'. 
Heavenly  spirits,  1S7. 
Hebrevvs  (Habiri),  i\  334, 
339;  26,_ü.  ;45,  ii.;  45-, 
ii,  ;  83,  ii.  ;  88,  ii.  ;  96, 
ii.  ;  296,  ii. 
Hebron,  14,  ii.  ;  26,  ii. 
Hecate,  87. 
Heimdalir,  133. 
Hei,  134. 
Heliopolis,  6^,  66, 159,  160; 

66,  ii.  ;  72,  ii.  ;  87,  ii. 
Helios,  24. 
Helladius,  48. 
Heptagram,  37  f. 
Heracles,    235-;    2i\    ii.  ; 
58,  ii.;  59^ii^.  ;  144,  ii.  ; 
173,  ii.  ;  306-,  ii. 
Herder,  313. 
Hermaphrodite,  149,  ii. 
Hermes  (grave  of),  96^. 
Hermodr,  134. 


Heimon,     300 ;    14S,     ii.  ; 

201,  ii.  ;   210,  ii. 
Herodotus.  96,  280. 
Hero-god,  141. 
Heroic  Age,  241. 
Hesiod,  69^,  77,  182'^ 
Hezekiah,  220.  ii. 
Hibilzivva(  =  Marduk),  137. 
High  priests,  177  ;   136,  ii. 
Hilal,  93  ;  106,  ii. 
Himalaya.s,  257. 
Hipparchus,  61. 
Hiram,  1S7,  ii.  ;  203,  ii. 
Hittites  (Hatti),  339,  340  ; 

195,  ii.  ' 
Hobal,  33I. 
Hödur,  133. 
Homa  (moon),  aoS-'. 
Hori-e,  30. 
Horeb,  sce  Sinai. 
Horns,  220  ;  02'',  ii.  ;    139, 

ii.  ;  175,  ii. 
Horoscope,  44- ;   8o\  ii.  ; 

148,  ii. 
Ilorus,    92    f.,   128^,    161  ; 

85,  ii.  ;  94,  ii. 
Hosea  (King),  217. 
Hosls  of  heaven,   245,  ii.; 

272,  ii. 
Hours,  44'^,  67". 
House  of  night,  138. 
"  Houses  "  of  the  zodiac, 

10,   13,    57,  142,  307 ; 

247,  li. 
Humbaba,  206,  212  f. 
Hunter,  celestial,  141,  290. 
Hyades,  25. 
Hydra  (constellation),  15 1\ 

235- 
Hyginus,  48. 
Hyksos,  85,  ii. 
Hyrokin,  133. 


Ibn  Hisham,  31,  ii. 
Ideogram  (divine),  49,  50^ 

124. 
Idols,  246  f.,  ii. 
Igigi,  106. 

Ijjar  (month,  Airu),  42,  72. 
Ilion,  170. 
Illinos,   146. 
Ilu  =  'el,    103I,  350;    13   f., 

ii. 
IM,  124  ;   19S",  ii. 
Immigration  (Semitic),    i, 

2,  4. 
Incantation,  see  Exorcism. 
Incense,     114',    ii.  ;     140, 

ii.  ;  190,  ii.  ;  290,  ii. 


I  India,  4,  12,  312,  40^,  47^^ 
I       632,    119,    165  f.,    182^ 
!       231,  234'',  242',  256  f., 
I       269  ;  252,  ii. 
Indo-Germanic  tribes,  276, 

283. 
Indra,  156,  ii.  ;  252,  ii. 
Inlil     (Bei),     104,     134  f., 

147.  295. 
Inscription     (of     Darius), 

278  ;      (Glazer),      2S7  ; 

(Mesha),     289 ;     (Shal- 

maneser),  209,  ii. 
Intercalary   days,  41,    6S ; 

155,  ii. 
Interpreter,  18,  49. 
lonians,  27S. 
Iphigenia,  48,  ii. 
Iran,  161. 

Isaac  (sacrifice  of),  48  f.,  ii. 
Isaiah,  227,  ii.  ;  268,  ii. 
Ishmael,  31,  ii.  ;  36,  ii. 
Ishme-Dagan.  159,  ii. 
Ishtar,  14  f.,  38  f.,  59,  63, 

86  f.,  95,  10 1,  103,  loS^, 

117  ff.,      126     f.,     269, 

296  f->  349,  351;  92,  ii.  ; 

169,  ii.  ;  241,  ii.  ;  (bread 

of),  280,  ii. 
Ishtar        (Descent        into 

Hades),   121,    127,   217. 
Isidore  of  Seville,  244^ 
Isis,  84. 

Islam,  9\  ii.  ;  247,  ii. 
Israel  (deportation),  27S. 
Israel -Judah,  201  f.,  ii. 
Issachar  =  Cancer,  80,  ii. 
Izdubar,  see  Gilgamesh. 

Ja  (district),  279. 

Jachin  and  Boaz,  157  ; 

172,  ii.  ;  188,  ii. 
Jacob,  329^  ;  21,  ii.  ;  37, 

ii.  ;  43,  ii.  ;  51,  ii.  ; 

57  ff.,  ii.  ;  (blessing),  77 

Ü.,   ii.  ;  (combat),  58  f., 

ii.  ;  (staff),  57,  ii. 
Jakob-el,  329. 
Jamania  (Greeks),  279. 
Janus,  72,  7J  ;  19»,  ii.  ;  57, 

ii. 
Japan,  24-*,  38',  56-,  167  f., 

270. 
Japetos,  310. 
Japhet,  277,  ii. 
Jareb,  301,  ii. 
Jatnana  (Cyprus),  279. 
Javan,  278,  281. 
Jebusite,  300. 
Jehoahaz,  212,  ii.  ;  241,  ii. 


324 


INDEX 


Jehoshaphat,  47,  ii.  ;  207-, 

ii. ;  238,  ii. 
Jehu,   209  f.,  ii.  ;  211,  ii.  ; 

239.  ii- 
Jepluha'sdaughter,  168,  ii. 
Jericho,  157,  ii. 
Jeroboan:  I..  204,  ii. 
Jeroboam  II.,  214,  ii. 
Jerusalem,    34-,    337  ;    27, 

ii.  ;    85,    ii.  ;     124,    ii.  ; 

190,    ii.  ;  205,   ii.  ;  216, 

ii.  ;  224,    ii.  ;   241,    ii.  ; 

256,  ii.  ;  2S7,  ii. 
Jesus,    84^    267-;  43,   ii.  ; 

174,  ii.  ;  301,  ii. 
Jethro,  2S7. 
Jezirat,  239^. 
Job,  252   f.,    ii.  ;    (Indian 

Version), 252, ii.;  (daiigh- 

ters=  Fates),  253,  ii. 
John  (Baptist),  4,  ii.  ;  43, 

ii.  ;  174,  ii.  ;  235,  ii. 
Jonah,  305,  ii. 
Jonathan,  48,  ii. 
Joseph,    100;    64   ff.,    ii.  ; 

(astral    motifs),    64    ff'.  ; 

(  =  Yanhamu),    72,    ii.  ; 

(=Taurus),  81,  ii.  ;  (  = 

Osar-siph),  88,  ii. 
Joshua   (glosses).    152    ff., 

ii. 
Josiah,  99  ;  230,  ii. 
Judah  — Leo,  79,  ii. 
Judges,  161  ff.,  ii. 
Judgment  Day,  196'  ;  271, 

ii.  :  301,  ii. 
Judgments,  293,  ii. 
Jupiter,  12,  15,  21,  27,  59, 

64,  74I,  85,  134. 
Jupiter  Ammon,  76. 
Jupiter   Dolichenus,    124-', 

349- 

Keiwan-Ninib,  27. 
Kalne  (Kahio),  269,  ii. 
Keb,  160. 
Kelach  (Kelah),  297;  222, 

ii. 
Kepler,  62. 
Keresäspa,  164. 
Kettu,  117,  157-. 
Khartoum,  286. 
Khatti,  see  Hatti. 
Khnum,  158,  160;  69',  ii. 
Kibla,  9,  28,  32,  34  ;  (Per- 

sian),  161-300,  ii. 
Kima,  260,  ii. 
King,   136;    (representing 

the  Divinity),  59-,  loi. 
Kingi,  loi. 


Kingu,  9,  51,  91,  146  f., 
148. 

Kinnuri(Underworld),  209. 

Kir,  271  ;  295,  ii.  ;  303,  ii. 

Kirbish-Tiamat,  22. 

Kirjath  Arba,  54^. 

Kirjath  Sepher,  54^,  264^ 

Kishar,  8,  145,  148. 

Kislev  (month),  42;  250,  ii. 

Kissare,  146. 

Kittim  =  Rüme  and  South- 
ern Italy,  285. 

Knossos  (figs.  62,  63), 
169. 

Kolpia,  157. 

Korah,  143,  ii. 

Koran,  12,  49'. 

Köre,  120  ;  169,  ii. 

Krishna,  77. 

Kronos,  52,  245,  263,  310. 

Kiih-Yüan,  166,  258. 

Kummukh,  2S0  f. 

Kurash,  see  Cyrus. 

Kutha,  30,  134,  139. 

Kybele,  see  Cybele. 

Laban,  18,  ii. 
Labbu,  151",  152. 
Lachi  and  Lachos,  146. 
Lachish,  225,  ii. 
Ladder  of  Osiris,  i/"*. 
Lagamar,  24,  ii. 
Lagash,  22,  loi. 
Lahmu,  see  Lakhmu. 
Lakhamu,  8,  145,  148. 
Lakhmu,  7,  145,  148. 
Lamb,  the,  100. 
Lamech,  240. 
Lance,  see  .Spear. 
Land,  the,  53  ff. 
Larsa,  loi,  117. 
Laws,  see  Ilammurabi. 
Leah,  209'-. 
Lebanon,  55  ;  187,  ii. 
Lellu  (Lillu),  104-. 
Leo,  23,  28,  41',  42,  97', 

119-,  140  ;  79,   ii.  ;   148, 

ii.  ;  285,  ii. 
Lepers  (banishment  of),  85 

f.,  ii. 
Letters,  Amarna,  139,  335 

ff. 
Letters,  Ta'annek,  342. 
Leviathan,    152',  181,  190, 

194,  230. 
Levite,  loi,  ii. 
Libation,  176,  ii.  ;  257,  ii. 
Library    of    Assurbanipal, 

247',  253,  298. 
Life  (nevv),  126. 


Life  and  death,  126,  132. 
Light  and  dark,  126. 
Light  (creation   of),    I56'', 

178. 
Lightning,  bronze,  237. 
Lilith,  272,  li. 
Lillu,  see  Lellu. 
Limu  list,  194,  ii. 
Lion,  see  Leo, 
Lion-slayer,  290  ;  170,  ii.  ; 

180,  ii.  ;   1S2,  ii. 
Literature  (cuneiform),  i. 
Liver    of    sheep    (augury), 

61,  170  ;  295,  ii. 
Living  stones,  258^. 
Logos  (  =  Nabu),  90^,  178. 
Loki,  133. 
Lord  of  Lands,  131. 
Lord  of  Lords,  136. 
Lot,    264,     272' ;    5,     ii.  ; 

19  f.,  ii. 
Love-appJe,  209  ;  56,  ii. 
Love  charm,  206-. 
Lubim,  300. 
Lucian,  128,  207,  298. 
Lucifer,  121,  123  :  270,  ii. 
Lud  =  Lubdi,  302. 
Ludim,  300. 
Lugal-du-Azaga,  143. 
Lugalgira,  1 13  f. 
Liigalzaggisi,  315. 
Lumashi  =  Stars,  31. 
Lunar  age,  73. 
Lunar  cycle,  87. 
Lunar  zodiac,  12. 
Luther,   193- ;  15,   ii.  ;  47. 

ii.  ;  92,  ii.  ;  278"^,  ii. 
Luz,  56,  ii. 
Lydia,  130.  276,  282. 

Macedonia,  2S4. 

Machpelah,  340^. 

Macrobius,  128. 

Madai,  277. 

Madyes,  283. 

Magan,  316. 

Magic,  105  ;  (plant),  215. 

Magog,  277. 

Magos,  157. 

Mahabharatta  epic,  257. 

Mahar,  story  of,  330. 

Mahi-.shasura,  231. 

Ma'in,  287. 

Malkat    Ishtar,    96,     121  ; 

279,  ii. 
Main   A'aiiishu,  213^,   ii.  .; 

(fig.   1S7),  274,  ii. 
Manii  (goddess),  186. 
Mammon,  234-. 
Manire,  14^,  ii.  ;  26,  ii. 


INDEX 


325 


Man,  28,  182  ff.  ;  2852,  ii. 

Manasseh,  22 1 ,  ii. ;  24 1 ,  ii  ; 
288,  ii. 

Manda,  276  f. 

Mandrean,  33,  127,  137. 

Manetho,  76. 

Manoah,  271. 

Mantle  (prophetic),  190,  ii. ; 
See  Garment. 

Manu,  256  f. 

Manzaz,  21. 

Manzazu,  see  Doorposts. 

Marduk,  5  f. ,  8  f. ,  22,  26, 
28,  29,  32,  34,  39,  51, 
59,  6i,  67,  74,  ^i,  85  f., 
89,  94,  102,  106,  117, 
121,    134    ff.,    143,    147, 

159,    177,    ^93.    igif,    222, 

265  ;    (  =z  Jupiter),    74I  ; 

(  =  Adapa),  17S;  (temple 

of),  306. 
Mar^jeshvan,  42. 
Marriage,  109,  ii. 
Mars,    12,    15,    21,   27,   64, 

140. 
Ma'rtess,  8. 
Martu,  322. 
Mary,  349^  ;  2S0,  ii. 
Mathematics,  47'',  48,  62^ 
Mazzalot  (Mazzaroth),  247, 

ii.  ;  260,  ii. 
Mecca,  288,  ii. 
Medes,  277,  283. 
Media,  278  ;  219,  ii. 
Mediator    and    mediation, 

90. 
Megiddo         (excavations), 

347  ;  20O'-,  ii. 
Mekonah,  1S8,  ii. 
Melchisedek,  13,  ii.  ;  29,  ii, 
Melkarth,  350. 
Meluhha,  72,  316;  92^  ii. 
Mempliis,  40,  160  ;  86,  ii.  ; 

228,  ii. 
Menahem,  215,  ii. 
Mercury,    12,    15,    20,    27, 

64,  137- 
Merkaba,   27    f.,   57;   124, 
1  ii.  ;  285-,  ii. 
Merneptah,  334  (fig.  131); 

Merneptah  II.,  85\  ii.  ; 

90,  ii. 
Merodach (Marduk),  8,  22  ; 

282,  ii. 
Merodach    Ealadan,    304  ; 

222,  ii.  ;  273,  ii. 
Mesech,  2S1. 
Mesha  (Mesa)  Inscription, 

289  ;  23S  f. ,  ii. 
Mesharu,  117,  157-. 


7,11. 


Mesopotamia,  33S- 

'97,  ii.  ;  219,  ii. 
Messiah,  76^;  672,11.  ;  80^, 

ii.  ;  264,  ii. 
Meta    of    Muski    (Midas), 

281. 
Metals,  76  ;  50,  ii. 
Meteors,  258';  42,  ii 


157, 


68, 
71, 


70, 
72), 


Mexico,    55,    61, 
loi,   136  (figs. 
312. 
Mlcah,  307,  11. 
Michael,  285^,  ü. 
Micha!,  57,  ii. 
Microcosmos,  53  f.,  58,205. 
Midas,  80. 
Midgard,  170  f. 
Midlan     and     Midianites, 

See  Minceans. 
Miftan,  310,  11. 
Migdal,     304  ;    200-,      ii.  ; 

24S,  ii. 
Migration,      "  Canaanile," 

i^  ;  (of  thought),  4-,  s"-*. 
Milcom,  47,  11. 
Milk  and  honey,   170,  ii.  ; 

268,  11. 
Milky  Way,  210I. 
Minaeans,  287  ;  68,  11.  ;  97 

ff.,  ii.  ;  118,  ii. 
Minos,  So. 
Minotaur,  see  Bull. 
Mis-ra,  267,  11. 
Mistletoe,  133. 
Mltannl,  297. 
Mithra,    30.   74I,  84,    166, 

238^  239S ;  56,  ii. 
Mizralm  (Egypt),  286  f. 
Moabites,  46,  ii.  ;  237,  11. 
Mohammed,  17,   40^,   73-; 
5,  ii.  ;    II,   ii.  ;    18,  11.  ; 
39,  ii- 
Mohär,  37,  11.  ;   109^,  11. 
Molech  (Moloch)  =  Under- 
world     Sun-god,      349  ; 
141,  11. 
Molten  sea,  118,  ii. 
Monetary  System,  50,  11. 
Monotheism  latent,  85. 
Monsters  of  chaos,  8,    154 

f.,  149'',  176. 
Months,     250,     11.  ;     (As- 

syrlan),  42. 
Moon,  12,  19  f.,  34,  76, 
S6;(  =  life),  iio;(Baby- 
lonlan  myth),  in  ff.  ; 
99,  ii.  ;  105,  ii.  ;  (wor- 
shlp),  8,  11.  ;  9  ff.,  11.  ; 
aiid  see  New  moon. 


Moon-god,  72,  102 ;  8,  ii. 
Müon-goddess,  123. 
Mordecai,  251,  11. 
Moreh,  14^,  ii. 
Morning    star,     74,     109-, 

121,     123«,     137,      166  ; 

270,  11. 
Mosalc  conception,  107,  11. 
Moses  =  Nebo,    90',   325^; 

4,  ii.  ;  90,  11.  ;    139,   11. ; 

151,  11. 
Mosul,  29S. 
Mot,  156. 
Mother-goddess,     8',     60, 

117   ff.,    171I,  1S2,  186  ; 

(flg.  124),  61,  iL;  233, 11. 
Mother    and    son,    7,    89^, 

119-,  160  ;  78,  ii.  ;  91  f., 

ii. 
Motif,  of  the  ages,  76  ff.  ; 
(in  Bible),  79'. 
arms,  319^ 
ass,     147=,    11.  ;    172I, 

ii.  ;  177^,  ii. 
astral,      90     ff,      11.  ; 

154,    ii. 
bargaining,  39,  11. 
b  1  ind  n  es  s    (moon 

motif),  133  :  172,  11. 
boar,  96  f.,    129.    13-1  ; 

66,  11. 
boasting,      149,      165, 

196. 
bringer    of    new   age, 

39,    73,    90\    141^ 

271  ;     16,    11.  ;    21, 

ii. ;  2i\  ii. ;  28,  ii.  ; 

89,  ii. ;  91,  11. ;  147, 

ii.  ;  1S2,  11. 
call  before  birth,  279, 

ii. 
castration,  78^,  ü. 
childlessness,  42^. 
combat,  58,  11. 
conqueror,  172,  11. 
curse,  269,  ii. 
deception,  52,  ii. 
deliverer,     196',     272, 

304  ;    32,   11.  ;  90,  f. 

ii.  ;  234,  11. 
deluge  of  blood,  254^. 
dlsmemberment,      78, 

92'. 
dispersal   and   gather- 

ing,  304. 
disruptlon   of  dragon, 

149,  194,  196^;   93, 
ii.  ;   154,  ii. ;   190,  ü. 
dragon    combat,    164, 
ii.  ;  183,  ii. 


326 


INDEX 


Motif — coiithuied. 

drinking  (new  year 
motif),  94"',  273. 

drunkenness,  78,  272^, 
273  ;  21',  ii.  ;  41, 
ii.  ;  172,  ii. 

dwarf,  155',  ii.  ;  182 
f.,ii. 

expectation  of  dcliver- 
er,  5,  195,  272, 
304;  32,  li.  ;  144, 
ii.  ;  14S,  ii.  ;  162, 
ii.  ;  174,  ii.  ;  264, 
ii.  :  275,  ii.  ;  280, 
ii. ;  301,  ii. ;  311,  ii. 

expulsion     of    tyrant, 

78,  94 ;     42\    ii.  ; 

79.  ii-  ;     163,    ii.  ; 
172,  ii. 

fire-flood,  39,  ii.  ;   171, 

ii. 
gardener.  92,  ii. 
gathering,  304. 
Gemini  (twin),  292. 
generation,  272^. 
hospitality,  19,  ii. 
incest,  93-,  273. 
Ishtar,  63-*,  ii. 
king's    daughter,    182, 

ii. 
knowing,     37',     209  ; 

62",  ii. 
lameness,  23,  32;  51, 

ii.  ;  59,  ii. 
laughter,  264  ;  33,  ii. 
Manoah,  169,  ii. 
moon,  18,  ii.  ;  27,  ii.  ; 

166,  ii.  ;  177,  ii. 
mourning,  93,  ii. 
mutilation,  40'', 
mysterious    birth,    28, 

ii.  ;  302,  ii. 
net,  164,  ii. 
new  age,  273. 
N'zr  (Nezer),  motif  of 

deliverance,  32,  ii.  ; 

235,    ii.  ;    300,    ii.  ; 

(Zemah),  144,  ii. 
plough,    59  ;    165,   ii.  ; 

177,    ii-  ;    234,    ii.  ; 

.235.  ii- 

rain  of  stones,  41,  ii. 

rape  and  childiessness, 
42^. 

rape  and  rejected  love, 
96  f.  ;  66,  ii.  ;  81, 
ii.  ;  163,  ii. 

renewal,  93-. 

renouncement  of  re- 
ward, 19,  ii. 


Motif — continned. 

ring  and  stafi',  6i\  ii. 

(comp.     fig.     132); 

lo7\  ii. 
scattering,  303. 
severed  head,  1 78,  ii.  ; 

1S3,  ii. 
sexual   violence,    171, 

ii. 
smallness  (Hop-o'-my- 

Thumb),  1S2,  ii. 
smashing,  8,  38'^  40'', 

923. 
spear,    159,    ii.  ;    178, 

ii.  ;  1S3,  ii. 
staff,    57,    ii. ;    64   ff., 

ii.  ;  93,  ii. 
sterility,  51,  ii.  ;    168, 

ii. ;   174  f.,  ii. 
storm,  196. 
suffering,  235. 
sun,  150  ;  172,  ii. 
Support,  19,  ii. 
sword,  236. 
taking  away,  240,  263  ; 

91^,     ii.  ;     236,    ii.  ; 

278,  ii. 
Tam,    52,     ii.  ;     137', 

ii. 
Tammuz,    100,     I2S'^  ; 

19,   ii.  ;  20,  ii.  ;  47, 

ii. 
throwing  away,  168. 
treading  upon  Dragon, 

see  Dragon. 
turning,  36,  3S-  ;   20, 

ii. 
twin    (Dioscuri),     19, 

ii.  ;  60,  ii. 
u  n  k  n  o  w  n   ancestry, 

271,  ii. 
unveiling   (=  knowing 

=  death),  62'',  ii. 
veil,  121  ;  38,  ii.  ;  62, 

ii.  ;  93,  ii.  ;   130,  ii. 
violated       hospitality, 

40,  ii.  ;  171,  ii. 
wedding,    35    ff..    95, 

96',  209  ;  62.  ii. 
whole,  the,  31,  ii. 
Mountain,    6',    23    f.,   54; 
(of  God),  205,  211  ;  98, 
ii.  ;    (of  the  world),  23, 
265  f.,  271  f.  ;  311,  ii. 
Mount  Hör,  144,  ii. 
Mount    of  assembly,    266, 

ii. 
Mourning,    131  ;    1S5,    ii.  ; 

296,  ii. 
Moymis  (Mumrnu),  7,  146. 


Mummu,  6  f.,  9,  63,  90^, 
106,  145- 

Mushkenu,  31,  ii. 

Mushrushu,  152-,  154. 

Music,  51,  ii.  ;  fig.  181  ; 
119,  ii.  ;  12b-,  ii.  ;  179, 
ii.  ;  184,  ii.  ;  223,  ii.  ; 
261,  ii.  ;  297,  ii.  ;  (of  the 
spheres),  16'  ;  259  f.,  ii. 

Muski,  281. 

Muspellsheim,  171. 

Muzri,  287  ;  201,  ii. 

Mutesellim,  324,  347  f. 

Mutilation,  130. 

Mycenaean  civilisation,  346. 

Mysor  and  Sydyk,  157. 

Mysteries,  83  ff.,  126,  129  ; 
289  f.,  ii. 

Myth,  47,  77,^  79  ;  (Vege- 
tation), 126'. 

Mythological  motifs,  see 
Motif. 

Naaman,  242,  ii. 
Nabatsean,     15",    17,    127, 

199  ;   61,    ii.  ;    96,    ii.  ; 

264,   ii. 
Nabonassar,  73,  75. 
Nabonidus,  113,  138. 
Nabopolassar,  138,  293. 
Nabu,  see  Nebo. 
Nabu  (Nabi),   29,  63,    74, 

86,  90,  134  f.,  138. 
Nabu-natsir,  75. 
Nabü-Nebo,  90. 
Nahash,  177,  ii. 
Nahr-el-Kelb,  55;  195,  ii. ; 

199,  ii. 
Nahum,  307,  ii. 
Name,  107',  145^  ;  12,  ii.  ; 

58,  ii.  ;  100,  ii.  ;  274,  ii. ; 

279,  ii. 
Names,    cosmic    meaning, 

Namir  =  Uddu,  290. 
Nanna,  108,  133. 
Nännar  (  =  Sin),  see  Sin. 
Naphtali  =  Aries,  80,  ii. 
Naramsin,  5,  50,  So,  309. 
Navel  (pole)  o(  the  world, 

54,  170;  55>  ii-  ;  288,  ii. 
Nazarene,  281,  ii. 
Neba-'el-'Asal,  55. 
Neba-'el-Leben,  55. 
Nebaioth,  52,  ii. 
Nebo,   15,  26,  29,  32,  34, 

39,  74,  85,  90,  94,   117, 

135,  137  f-,  265  ;  .151,  ii.  ; 

276,  ii. ;  (Mercury),  137  ;. 

(tower  of),  305. 


INDEX 


327 


Nebuchadnezzar,    59,    84,  1 

138.  293,  304;  230,  ii.  ; 

300.  J'- 
Necho,  200-,  ii.  ;  230,  ii.  ; 

24S,  ii. 
Negeb,  44,  ii. 
Nehushtan,  244,  ii. 
Nephesh,  26S. 
Nerab,  8,  ii. 
Nergal,  9,    15,   26,  30,  32, 

86,    113,   117,   121,   134, 

139  f.,  265  ;  244,  ii.  ; 
255,  ii-  ;  (Saturn),  38  ; 
(Scorcher),  140  ;  (Lion), 
140. 

Neros,  63. 

New  age,  92^,  137. 

New   moon,   35,  45,   in  ; 

21^,  ii.  ;  105,  li.  ;  159,  ii.  ; 

167,  ii. 
New  year,  34,  59,  91,  93, 

96. 
Nibiru,    I5\  21   fF.,   30  f., 

85 ;     55'^    ii  ;    59.    ii-  ; 

103,  ii. 
Nicholas  of  Damascus,   S, 

ii. 
Nicolaitan,  147,  ii. 
Niffer,  see  Nippur. 
Nifleheim,  171. 
Night     watches,      27,     ii ; 

105,   ii. 
Nile,  158,  21S  ;  70,  ii. 
Nimrod,  2S9  f.,  310  ;  5,  ii.  ; 

19,  ii.  ;  21^,  ii.  ;   cS,  ii. 
Nimrud  (Calah),  298. 
Nina,  loi. 
Nineveli,    123,    296  ;    (de- 

stroyed),  298  ;  309,  ii. 
Ningirsu,  see  Ninib. 
Ningishzida,  208. 
Ninib,  15,  22,  23,  26,  30, 

32,    86,    102,    117,   134, 

140  f.  ;  (Ningirsu),  22, 
57,  96,  loi,  198,  265  ; 
(Mars),  38,  96,  98. 

Nippur  (Niffer),  101,   104, 

142. 
Nisan,  90  ;  250,  ii. 
Nisir,  266. 
Nisroch,  228,  ii. 
Noah,  see  Utnapishtim. 
Nob,  139. 
Node,  20, 
North,     8,     103  ;    (point), 

106I  ;    (  =  fire),    33,    ii.  ; 

257,  ii.  ;  (gate),  288,  ii. ; 

291,  ii. 
Northern  cosmogony,  170. 
Notos,  156. 


Nubia,  see  Cush. 

Numa  Pompilius,  65. 

Numbers  (sacred),  6?  ff.  ; 
(three),  166,  ii. ;  (four). 
311,  ii.  ;  (five),  62  ff., 
94"  ;  26,  ii.  ;  42,  ii.  ; 
ISS,  ii.  ;  (seven),  43, 
55,  64,  66,  136,  198  ; 
(seventh  day),  164^,  199 
f.,  217" ;  128,  ii.  ;  135, 
ii.  ;  147,  ii.  ;  (seventh 
note),  2S9,  ii.  ;  292,  ii.  ; 
311,  ii.  ;  (twelve),  55  f., 
64,  94",  214I,  242I  ;  43, 
ii.  ;_  135,  ii.  ;  155,  ii.  ; 
(thi  r  te  en),  18.  ii.  ; 
(thirty),  170,  ii.  ;  (forty), 
93^ ;  265,  267  ;  98,  ii.  ; 
(fifty),  267  ;  (seventy), 
166,  i;. 

Nun,  158. 

Nut,  160. 

Nycteus,  41",  ii. 


Cannes,  Tablets  of,  48,  S2, 

53=  138. 
Oaih,  form  of,  77,  ii. 
Obelisk,  103,  ii.  ;  14S,  ü.  ; 

188,  ii.  ;  210,  ii. 
Ocean,  105. 
Octave,  16  ;  259,  ii. 
Odin,  133. 

'Ohel  mo'ed,  58  ;    121,  ii. 
Olive  leaf,  266  f. 
Olympus,  150^,  1S9. 
Omina,  so,  53- 
Omorka,  147. 
Omri,  206,  ii. 
On  Heliopolis,  66,  158. 
Ophir,  302. 
Oracle,  200  ;  129,  ii.  ;  166, 

ii.  ;  247-,  ii.  ;  271,  ii. 
Ordeal,  in,  ii. 
Orgies,  130. 
Orientation,  32  ff. 
Origins,  193,  ii. 
Orion,     94  ;     (  =  Nimrod), 

290;    (=Tammuz),    20, 

ii.  ;  57,  ii.  ;  260,  ii. 
Ormuzd,  202". 
Orpheus,  121. 
Osarsiph,  see  Joseph. 
Osiris,  S9j  89,  92,  129,  290, 

309  ;  94,  ii. 
Othniel,  162,  ii. 
Overworld,       see      Under- 

world. 
Ovid,  69''. 
O.K  and  ass,  172^,  ii. 


Padü,  185. 

Paganism  (in  Israel),    188, 

ii.  :  267,  ii. 
Palestine,  337^ 
Palingenesia,  244. 
Pan,  232  ;  51,  ii. 
Pantheon,  100  ff. 
Papyrus  Anastasi,   330  ff.  ; 

d'Orbiney,  69,  ii. 
Paradise,  54,  204  ff.  ;   Per- 

sian,     207,     219"  ;      (  = 

Park),   251,  ii. 
Parousia,  131. 
Passover   (Pesah  =  Nibiru), 

102  ff. ,  ii. 
Pathrusim,  299. 
Patriarchs,   238  ;    flist    of), 

239-  . 
Pausanias,  182'. 
Pekah,  216,  ii. 
Pekahiah,  214,  ii. 
Pentagram,  37  ff. 
Pentateuch,  120-,  ii. 
Peoples    (Indo-Germanic), 

277. 
Pepi,  41,  ii. 

Persephone,  30,  120,  128. 
Perseus,  9S,  ii. 
Persia,  161  f. 
Pesah,  see  Passover. 
Pessimism,  228  f.  ;  108,  ii.  ; 

2s6,  ii.  ;  264,  ii. 
Petra,  87I. 
Phallus  -  phallic     worship, 

72,    121-  ;  77\  ii.  ;  294, 

ii. 
Pharaoh  (  =  Shamash),  350. 
Phases    of  the    moon,    36, 

fig.  15. 
Philemon   and  Baucis,   41, 

ii. 
Philistines,  303,  ii. 
Philo  of  Biblos,  15s,   337  ; 

135.  ii- 
Phoenicia,  iSS  f  ;  199,  ü. 
Phosphorus,  121. 
Phraortes,  278. 
Pillar    of    fire    and    cloud, 

104,   ii. 
Pisces,  see  Fish. 
Pit  (bitumen),  26,  ii.  ;  (  = 

Underworld),     65,     ii.  ; 

141,  ii. 
Pithom,  76,  ii. 
"  Place  "-hell,  253,  ii. 
Plague,  139. 
Planets,  18,  20  f. 
Plant  of  life,  215,  268. 
Pleiades,  40^,  68,  94,  in, 

265. 


328 


INDEX 


Plough,  see  Motifs. 
Plutarch,  69^  85. 
Pneuma,  156. 
Points  (of  the  universe),  25 

ff.  ;  (cardinal),  288,  ii. 
Pole  (of  the  universe),   8, 

9  ;  (of  the  World),  170. 
Polyhistor,  see  Alexander. 
Polytheism,  90. 
Pothos,  155. 
Potiphar,  72,  ii. 
Precession,  271. 
Precious  stones,  214. 
Present  and  future,  244. 
Priesthood,  142,  ii. 
Priestly  document,  i,  ii. 
Primeval  principle,  Phoeni- 

cian,  155. 
Principle,    Ancient-Orien- 

tal,   53  ;    masculine  and 

feminine,  231. 
Procession,    92,     95 ;     (of 

Marduk),  123,  ii. 
Prometheus,  182^,  258. 
Prophecy    (written),    302, 

ii. 
Proserpine,  see  Persephone. 
Prostitution,  121. 
Protogonos,  157. 
Protothyes,  283. 
Proverbs,  263,  ii. 
Psalms  (penitential),   222  ; 

261  f.,  ii. 
Ptolemy,  Canon  of,  75. 
Pul,  see  Tiglath  Pileser. 
Purgatory,  140. 
Purification,     117    f.,    ü.  ; 

140,  ii.  ;  254,  ii, 
Purim,  251,  ii. 
Purusha,  166. 
Put  (Punt),  2S7  f. 
Pythagoras,  259,  ii. 

Qedem,  204,  219,  303. 

Qeshet,  269. 

Qosh  (Quzah),  Storm-god, 

61,  ii. 
Queen  of  Heaven,  15,  39, 

60,  98  f.,  Ii8f.  ;  60',  ii.  ; 

92,  ii.  ;  232,  ii. 
Queen  of  Sheba,  1S8  f.,  ii. 
Queen-mothtr,  233,  ii. 
Quetzalcuatl,  136. 

Ra,  72,  ii. 

Rachel,  209^ ;  56,  ii. 
Rahal),  194;  157,  ü. 
Rainbow,  14.  103,  269  L 
Ram  as  Substitute,  48,  ii. 


Rameses  II.,  329  ;  90,  ii. 

Rameses  IV.,  92. 

Ramman  (Storm-god),  15, 
22  f.,  86,  99,  124  f.,  165, 
197,  349;  197,  ii.  ;  242, 
ii.  ;  290,  ii. 

Raphael,  285-,  ii. 

Raqia',  179  f.,  189;  129, 
ii.  ;  286,  ii. 

Raven,  266;  (ill  omen),  I2^ 

Rebekkah,  51,  ii. 

Records,  Babylonian,  i. 

Redeemer,  5. 

Regent,  12. 

Regulus  (  =  Reguel),  41  ; 
148,  ii. 

Rehoboam,  205,  ii. 

Rehoboth-Ir,  29S. 

Religion,  Babylonian,  49; 
(progressive  develop- 
ment),  15,  ii.  ;  (popu- 
lär), 15  f.,  ii.  ;  (Mo- 
hammedan),   32,  ii. 

Rephaim,  30,  ii. 

Resen,  299. 

Resurrection,  ioi\  309. 

Reuben  =  Aquarius,  77,  ii. 

Revelation,  50  ff.,  86 ; 
(method  of),  12,  ii.  ; 
(at  Horeb-Sinai),  12,  ii. 

Revvard  of  conqueror,  94, 
196;  60'^,  ii.  ;   182,  ii. 

Rezin,  215,  ii. 

Rib-addi  of  Gebal,  301. 

Riddle-guessing,  170,  ii.  ; 
189,  ii. 

Rig  Veda,  165  ;  155-,  ii. 

Rimmon,  see  Ramman. 

Rim-Sin,  24,  ii. 

Rites  of  blood,  2,  ii. 

Ritual,  sacrihcial,  113  ff., 
ii. 

River,    54,   98 ;    (of  Para-  j 
dise),  216  f. 

Rodanin,  285. 

Rodanin-Rhodes  [?],  2S5. 

Rome,  29^  43,  65,  73,  78, 
123,  131,  143^,  169; 
in',  ii.  ;  130,  ii. ;  140, 
ii.  ;   166',  ii.  ;   17S,  ii. 

Romulus,  95,  ii. 

Rosh  (fountain  =  Under- 
world),   218'  ;   152,  ii. 

Rüstern  =:deliverer,  165. 

Ruth,  158!,  ii. 

Saba,  289. 
Sabseans,  289. 
Sabbath,  19S,  201  f. 
Sabbath  star,  201. 


Sabitu,  62,  ii. 

Sacred  grove  (Eridu),  214. 

Sacrifice,     132;    (human), 

348  ;  141,  ii.  ;   243,  ii.  ; 

(of  Isaac),  48,  ii.  ;  (Sub- 
stitute),   48,     ii.  ;     (ma- 

terial),      114     ff.,      ii.  ; 

(Jephtha's        daughter), 

168,  ii. 
Sagush-Kaiwan,  18. 
Sais  (statue  at),  121^  ;  62^, 

ii. 
Salem    (Shalem),    27,    ii.  ; 

29,  ii. 
Salt,  171  ;  140,  ii.  ;  16S,  ii. 
Salutation    (Öriental),    33, 

ii. 
Samaria,  206,  ii. 
Samsi-Adad,  302. 
Sanisi-Ramman,  296. 
Samson,  80  ;    169  ff.,    ii.  ; 

( =Gilgamesh),  172,  ii. 
Samuel,  174  f.,  ii. 
Sanctuary,  58;  162,  ii. 
Sandracottus,  180,  ii. 
Sanchuniathon,  155. 
Sarah,    Keguel's  daughter, 

20-*,  ii.  ;  63,  ii. 
Sarai,  17,  ii.  ;  36,  ii. 
Sarakos,  298. 
Sardanapolus,  29S. 
Sargon,    5,    14,   50,  72  f., 

n,  80,  299,  317;  92,  ii.  ; 

270,     ii.  ;     (of    Agade), 

292  ;  (Annais),  218,  ii. 
Saros,  69;  194,  ii. 
Sarrapu  (Nergal),  140. 
Satan,  254,  ii. 
Saturn,  12,  15,  21,  27,  64, 

140,  201  f. 
Satyrs,  269,  ii. 
Sauland  Jonathan,  176  f., 

ii. 
Savour  (of  sacrifice),  267  f., 

215=5 ;     291,       ii.  ;      (of 

Christ),  267. 
Scapegoat,  117,  ii. 
Scarabeus,  7-,  234-. 
Scorpio,  25,  40,  43;  81,  ii. 
Scorpion  man,  25-,  146'. 
Scorpion  star,  13. 
Scourge,  191,  ii. 
Scribe,  292,  ii. 
Sea  serpent,  iSi,  152-. 
Se'ir,    51,  ii.  ;  60,   ii.  ;  98, 

ii.  ;  141^  ii. 
Selene,  24,  87. 
Seleucos  Nicator,  62. 
Semah,  see  Zemah. 
Semiramis,  249,  ii. 


INDEX 


329 


Semites  and  Semitic,  3^. 
Senkeiah,  117. 
Sennacherib,    276,    292  f., 

297,  299  ;  222,  ii. 
Sephiroth  (seven   sonnds), 

Seraphim,  266,  ii. 
Serpent,     31-,     151,     220, 

233  ;  146,  ii.  ;  244,  ii. 
Servant,  248,  ii.  ;  (of  Yah- 

veh),  278,  ii. 
Set  (feast  of),    93  ;  (grave 

of,  96^ 
Set  {bene-shet),  14S,  ii. 
Seth,  children  of,  238  f. 
Sethi,  329,  33S. 
Seven,  see  Numbers. 
Seven    sleepeis,    42",    ii.  ; 

157,  ii. 
Seventh  note,  259',  ii. 
Sexagesimal  System,  63. 
Sha'al  shulmi,  221,^  ii. 
Shalmaneser  I.,  296,  299. 
Shalmaneser  IL,    199,  ii.  ; 

209,  ii. 
Shalmaneser  III.,  213,  ii. 
Shäm,  303. 
Shamash,    14,    18,    30,    63, 

86  ff.,  loi,  115  ff.,   125, 

139. 
Shaving  (the  head),  71,  ii. 
Sheba,  2S9. 
Shebat,  42. 
Shedim  (demons),  30,  ii.  ; 

150,  ii.  ;  257,  ii. 
Shekel,  49,  ii. 
Shem,  see  Semites. 
Shemiramotli,  249,  ii. 
Sheol,  295,  ii. 
"Shepherd,"  57,  58^  304. 
Shesbazar,  34-,  46  ;  250,  ii. 
Shiblioletii,  119:   169,  ii. 
Shiloh  (  =  Sheol),  81,  ii.  ; 

133.  ii- 
Shinar,  291. 
Shinto  doctrine,  24'*,   38^, 

167. 
Ship,  sacred,  95. 
Shipru,  48. 
Shitlamtaea     (  =  Nergal), 

113  f. 
Showbread,  135,  ii. 
Shu,  160I. 
Shu-fu-tse,  52. 
Shupuk  shame  (zodiac),  13, 

15,  18. 
Shurippak,  247. 
Shurpu,  see  Exorcism. 
Sibylline       (books),       52  ; 

(oracles),  310. 


Sichem,  24'*;    13,  ii.  ;    67, 

ii.  ;   166,  ii. 
Sicily,  285. 
Sickle  sword  (crescent),  36, 

(fig.  14),  HO,  ]95,  270. 
Siddim,  vale  of  (Shedim), 

26,  ii.  ;  30,  ii. 
Sidon,  55  ;  200,  ii. 
Siegfried,  237. 
Sign  of  Gross,  292,  ii. 
.Sigurd,  96,  ii. 
Silver  as  moon  metal,  76. 
Silver-tablet   Treaty.   330  ; 

195,  ii- 
Simeon  and  Levi  (Gemini), 

78,  ii. 
Sin  (god),  14,    18,  22,  63, 

86  f.,  loi,   loS  ff.,   152  ; 

9  f.  ii.  ;  (hymn  to),  10,  ii. 
Sin  (rebellion),  225. 
Sinai,  98  ff.,  ii. 
Sin-offering,  103,  ii. 
Sinuhe,  325  ff.,  184,  ii. 
Sippar,    52,    57,    73,    102, 

117,  239,  246  f.,  262. 
Sirius,  69  ;  21,  ii.  ;  260-,  ii. 
Sisera,  164,  ii. 
Sister-wife,  21,  ii. 
Sivan,  42,  72  ;  250,  ii. 
Sixth  month,  126. 
Slavery,  1 10,  ii. 
Sleeping  beauty,  100-,  ii.  ; 

182«,  ii. 
Smell  of  the  field,  53,  ii.  ; 

also  see  Savour. 
Smith,  239,  281  ;  51,  ii. 
Sodom      and      Gomorrha, 

39  f-,  ii- 
Solomon,     284  ;    47,     ii.  ; 

132,  ii.  ;   185  ff.,  ii. ;  203, 

ii.  ;  262,  ii. 
Solstice,    34    ff.,    43'*,    70, 

92-',  94I,  126^. 
Son  of  Man,    10,   89,  106, 

1S2,  196  ;  301,  ii. 
Sons  of  God,  254,  ii. 
Sophia,  48,  105,  176,  188. 
Sossos,  63. 
Sothis  periods,  69"  ;  (god- 

dess),  21,  ii. 
South  America,  38',  38-. 
South  point,  30,  161. 
Space  =  time,  109. 
Spear,  see  Motifs. 
Sphinx,  233,  236  ;  59,  ii.  ; 

170-,  ii.  ;   18S,  ii. 
Spica,  119. 
Spinning,  139,  ii. 
Spring       (-=Underworld), 

217. 


Spring  point,  76-. 

Staff,  5!  ;  CJacob's),  57,  ii.; 

(Aaron's),  143,  ii.  ;   165, 

ii.  ;  (Moses'),  100,  ii. 
Stages,  see  Stations. 
Stars,  49  ;  164,  ii.  ;  (morn- 

ing  and  evening),  270  f., 

ii. 
States,  Mediterranean,  196, 

ii. 
"  Stations,"      12,     16     f.  ; 

(Ulnar),   25,  40  ;   iS,  ii.  ; 

105,  ii. ;  247,  ii. ;  260,  ii. 
St  Christopher,  37. 
St  John's  Day,  39-,  43^. 
Step  tower,  see  Tower. 
Stone    (black),    see    Petra 

(living),  258'. 
Storm-god,  242,  ii. 
Stratonice  ( =  Ishtar),  96,  ii. 
Subartu,  53. 
Substitute,  48  f.,  ii. 
Succoth  Benoth,  244,  ii. 
Sumer,  2,  loi. 
Siimmns  deits,  134,  136. 
Sun,   19,   34,    76,   86,   88, 

166  ;  (=death),  lio. 
Sun  -  god,     15S     f.,     254; 

(grave    of),    308 ;    (Baal 

and  Moloch),   349  ;  69^, 

ii. 
Sun-worship,  24S,  ii.;  291, 

ii-  ;  73'- 
Sword,    see   Motifs    (fiam- 

ing),     236;     (  =  flame), 

237  ;   (drawn),    157,   ii.  ; 

184,  ii. 
Sydyk,  157. 
Symbolism,  iio'*,  114,  125: 

32,  ii.  ;  5u,   ii.  ;  51,   ii.  ; 

61,  ii.  ;  62,  ii.  ;   loi,  ii.  ; 

136-',  ii.  ;  233,  ii. 
Syncellus,  48,  61,  63,  75. 
Syria,  56,  iii\  254,  300 f., 

324  f.;  162-,  ii.  ;  195,  ii.; 

301,  ii. 
System,  3  f.,   55,  86,   102, 

137  ;  (Ancient-Oriental), 

169;  (Egyptian),  158. 

Ta'annek       (excavations), 

344  ff- 
Tabernacle,  120  ff.,  ii. 
Tables  of  stone,    50,   125, 

135,     138;     (tablets    of 

creation),     145    ff.  ;    (of 

fate),  123,  ii. 
Tablet-breaking,  75. 
Tablets  of  fate  and  destiny, 

see  Tables. 


330 


INDEX 


Tad.  i66. 
'J'alio,  HO,  ii. 
Tatnar,  6i  f.,  ii. 
Tamniuz,    34  ff.,  S4,   S6-, 

93,  96  ff. ;  (Osiris),  89\ 

121,    125  ff'.  ;   (Adonis), 

12S;     (  =  Orion),     290, 

127,  ii. ;   (month),   2S3, 

ii. ;  (point),  290 ;  290,  ii. ; 

(songs),  99. 
Tarn  tu,  152. 
Tanitu,  152. 
Tarchon,  169. 
Tainhelm,  113. 
Tarshisli,  284. 
Tartarus,  241. 
Tattooing,  2S5. 
Tau,  292,  ii. 
Taurus,     5,     13,     41,     73, 

136  f. 
Taiithe  (Taut),   145'',   146, 

156  f.  ;  293,  ii. 
Teaching,    4,    46,   61,  81, 

83,     170,     176  ;    (Baby- 

lonian),      5  ;     (Ancient- 

Oriental),  100  f.,  175. 
Tcbah  (ehest),  271. 
Tebet,  42. 
Tefnet,  160. 
Teiiom,  6',  174,  193,  265; 

295,  ii. ;  ( =dragon),  192. 
Teil  Amarna,  see  Amarna. 
Teil  Hesy,  341. 
Teil  Ibrahim,  139^. 
Telloh,  102. 
Temple,    57    ff.,    138;   (of 

Fifcy),  198  :  (pillars),  57  ; 

(of  Solomon),    133,   ii.  ; 

(of   Marduk),    76,    307^, 

l8S^,  ii.  ;  227,  ii. 
Temple  towers,  17. 
Terah,  17,  ii. 
Teraphim,  56,  ii.  ;  302,  ii 
Terrestiial    and     celestial, 

158. 
Teshup,  23,  124" ;  156,  ii. 
Thaies,  20,  61. 
Thebes,     159,     160,    258^, 

308. 
Theogonies     and     cosmo- 

gonies,  7  ff.,   145,    158, 

160,  165,  196. 
Theseus,  163',  236^ ;  60-,  ii. 
Thirteen,  see  Numbcrs. 
Thoas,  95,  ii. 
Thomyris,  17S,  ii. 
Thor,  23,  133. 
Thora,  215'';  49-,  ii.  ;   iii 

ff.,  ii.  ;  255,  ii. 
Thorn  bush,  100,  ii. 


Thoth,  160. 

Thothmes  III.,  32S  ;  195, 

ii. 
Thoiisand  and  One  Nt'ghls, 

2133,236^;  3,  ii.  ;  8,  ii.  ; 

66-,   ii.  ;    164,   ii.  ;    182'', 

ii.  ;  237,  ii. 
Threshold,  103,  ii. 
Throne,  23,  28,  54,   58  ff.  ; 

124,     ii.  ;     (Solomon's), 

1S9,  ii.  ;  258,  ii. 
"Thrones,"  12,  307. 
Thrudgelmir,  171. 
Thuinmim,  51. 
Thummosis,  87,  ii. 
JTiamat,    6,    8    f,    51,   63, 
'^  146,  148,  153,  193. 
Tibarenes,  281. 
Tiber,  143. 
Tiglath  Pileser  I.,  2S0  f, 

195,  ii. 
Tiglath  Pileser  III.  (Pul), 

214,  ii. 
Tigris,  105. 
Timaos,  86,  ii. 
Tiras,  282. 

Tirhakah,  2S6  ;  226,  ii. 
Tishpak  (Ninib),  152. 
Tishri,  33,  46. 
Tishrit,  month,  22^ 
Tishtrya,  162  ff. 
Tisiten,  87  f.,  ii. 
Titans,  157,  310. 
Tobias,  284,  ii. 
Togomah,  282  f. 
Tohu,  174,  176. 
Toledoth,  242. 
Tonalaniatl,  6S-,  136^ 
Tonsure,  236,  ii. 
Tower   of  stages,   16,    57, 

84,  150-,  164^  203,  262, 

304,  307  ff. 
Tower-building,   136,   241, 

303  ff. 
Tradition  (secret),  84^ 
Trance  (Ezekiel's),  286,  ii. 
Transmigration,  244. 
Trees,    24,     207    ff.,    229, 

236;  14,  ii.  ;  26,  ii.  ;   (of 

knowledge   =   tree        of 

death),  266. 
Triad,  8,  13  f.,  26,  51,  63, 

79,  85  f.,  89,  loi  f.,  108 

f.,  117,  162. 
Troy,  40,  ii. 
Tsarpanit,  95. 
Tsarpitanu,  96. 
Tubal  Cain,  239,  2S0. 
Tubal  (Tabal),  280,  f. 
Tubkati,  Tubukati,  16,  57. 


Tulculti-Ninib  I.,  19S,  ii. 
Tushratta,  297. 
Twelfth  Night,  gr. 
Twelve,  see  Numbers,  55  ; 

42  ff.,  ii  ;   161,  ii. 
Type,  cosmic,  307. 
Typhon,  235;  94,  ii. 
Tyr,  163,  ii. 
Tyre,  199,  ii. 
Tyrrhenus,  169. 
Tyrseni,  282. 

Uddushu-namir,  290^. 

Ulai,  219". 

Ulfr,  133. 

Underworld,  9,  15,  40,  88, 
121,  126,  133.  137S, 
138  f.,  140 ;  51,  ii.  ; 
1S4,  ii.  ;  256,  ii. ;  263, 
ii.  :  [m  y  t  h  s),  126-  ; 
(=:Egypt),  158;  (Per- 
sian),  164  ;  (Japan),  168  ; 
(gates  of),  273,  ii.  ;  (song 
of),    222,    ii.  ;    270,    ii.  ; 

295.  ii-  ;  303.  ii- 
Universe,    8,    26,    34,    63, 

349- 
Upper-  and  Under-world, 

210;  31,  ii.;  51,  ii.;  137, 

u.  ;     171,    li.  ;    254,    ii.  ; 

291,  ii. 
Upwards  (direclion),  26-. 
Ur,  lOl,  113  ;  6  f ,  ii. 
Uradhu,  276. 
Urakshatara,  27S. 
Uranus,  63. 
Urfa,  6-%  ii. 
Uriel,  285-^,  ii. 
Urim  and   Thummim,    51, 

20S  ;   136,  ii. 
Urtu,  115. 
Uruk,  123. 
Urusalem  (Jerusalem),  337  ; 

27,  ii. 
Ushas,  166. 
Utnapishtim,    206,   238  f., 

247,  253,  263  f.,  271. 
Utu,  115. 

Valerius,  66^, 
Valkyrie,  133. 
Varuna,  166. 
Veda,  256. 
Veil,  see  Motifs. 
Vendidad,  256. 
Vengeance,  167,  ii. 
Venus,    12,    18,  21,  76,  86, 

119,  128  ;  (planet),  68^  ; 

(bearded),  123. 


INDEX 


331 


Vestals,    91,    ii.  ;    93,   ü.  ; 

95,  ii- 
Vine,  209. 
Virgin,  267  f.,  ii. 
Virgin,  Virgo,  60^. 
Virgo,  119. 

Vision  and  ecstasy,  12,  ii. 
Völuspa    saga,    116',    133, 

170. 
Vulcan,  2.8,  52. 

Wadd,  114. 
Wall  (princes'),  324. 
Wanderer  =  moon,  18,  ii. 
War-god,  14  t. 
War-goddess,  122  f. 
Watchers,  156,  164. 
Water,     105  ,     (primeval), 

15S,    174,  176  ;   (of  life), 

214,    216    f.  ;     100,    ii.  ; 

257,  ii.  ;   (water  realm), 

8,  45,  70,  144- 
"  Way,  The,"  146. 
We,  171. 
Week,  65,  19S  f. 
Week-days,  44. 
WelI=Underworld,        13', 

ii.  ;     (wells     of    Jacob), 

44,  ii. 
Wep-wamet,  92. 
Wessobrunner  prayer,  172, 

187I. 
Westland,  314  ff. 
Wife  (secondary).  35  f.,  ii. 
Wilderness    (desert),     117, 

ii.  ;  269,   ii. 
Wili,  171. 
Windows  of  heaven,  191, 


Winds,  156. 
VVine,  216  ;   168,  ii. 
Wisdom,  7,  47  ff. ;  Ancient- 

Orienlal,  169. 
Witch,  184  f.,  ii. 
Wolf,  Si,  ii. 
Woman    as   tempter,    221, 

233  ;  (and  serpent),  231  ; 

(mourning),      297,      ii.  ; 

308,  ii. 
Word,  the,  177,  90^. 
World,  253. 

VVorship  (Canaanite),  4. 
Wotan,  103,  ii. 
Writer  of  destinies,  136. 
Writing     {see     Alphabet), 

2S7,  ii.  ;  (of  the  heavens), 

49- 

Xenophon,  299. 
Xerxes,  75  ;  (tomb  of),  279. 
Xisuthros,    52,    183^,    245, 
252^,  262,  267. 

Yahveh,  13  f.,  ii. 

Yang,  167. 

Yang-Yin,  167,  231. 

Yanhamu,  342  ;  72  ff.,  ii. 

Yao,  12,  56. 

Yarimuta,  73,  ii. 

Yasna,  116^. 

Ya'u,  14,  ii. 

Ya'u-bi'di,  219,  ii. 

Ya'udi,  220,  ii. 

Year  of  the  raging  serpent, 

253- 

Year-god,    121  ;    1S2,    u.  ; 


Yggdrasil,    172 ;   see    Tree 

of  the  World 
Yima,  163,  23c. 
Yin,  167. 
Y-king,  168. 
Ymir,  17  t. 

Zagmuk.  91. 
Zalbatanu,  iS,  27. 
Zarathustra,       161,       230; 

276,   ii. 
Zebuion  =  Capricorn,  80,  ii. 
Zechariah,  310,  ii. 
Zedekiah,  230,  ii. 
Zemah,    32,    ii.  ;  278,    ii.  ; 

280,  ii. 
Zend  Avesta,  see  Avesta. 
Zerah,  286. 
Zer  Aineluti,  lO,  47. 
Zeus,   74I,    130, '147,    157, 

258,    312;  41,    ii.  ;    53, 

ii.  ;  94,   ii. 
Zeus-Belu.-,     sanctuary    of, 

307. 

Zion  =  heavenly  mountain, 
122,  ii. 

Zodiac,  S,  9,  10  ff.,  28,  42, 
56,  57,  63,  97I,  146I, 
162,  179,  307  ;  (Jacob's 
blessing),  77  ff.,  ii.;  (  = 
cycle),  82^,  ii. 

Zopharsemin       (watchers), 

156. 
Zoroaster        (Zarathustra), 

512,   77,    161,    163,   230, 

242^  244  ;  276,  ii.  ;  3x1, 

ii. 
Zu,  100",  102,  1S3. 


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